The skin is a complex organ that has devised numerous strategies, such as physical, chemical, and microbiological barriers, to protect the host from external insults. In addition, the skin contains an intricate network of immune cells resident to the tissue, crucial for host defense as well as tissue homeostasis. In the event of an insult, the skin-resident immune cells are crucial not only for prevention of infection but also for tissue reconstruction. Deregulation of immune responses often leads to impaired healing and poor tissue restoration and function. In this review, we will discuss the defensive components of the skin and focus on the function of skin-resident immune cells in homeostasis and their role in wound healing.

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The Dynamics of the Skin's Immune System

The Yeasts, A Taxonomic Study, 4th edn., C.P. Kurtzman, J.W. Fell (Eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam (1998), xviii, Price Hfl 800 (Euros 363; $460).

Yeast flavour production by solid state fermentation of orange peel waste

This study was performed to determine the effects of zinc supplementation on wound healing and metabolic status in patients with diabetic foot ulcer. The current randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted among 60 patients (aged 40–85 years old) with grade 3 diabetic foot ulcer. Participants were randomly divided into two groups (30 participants in each group) to take either 220 mg zinc sulfate supplements containing 50 mg elemental zinc or placebo daily for 12 weeks. After the 12-week intervention, compared with the placebo, zinc supplementation was associated with significant reductions in ulcer length (−1.5 ± 0.7 vs. −0.9 ± 1.2 cm, p = 0.02) and width (−1.4 ± 0.8 vs. −0.8 ± 1.0 cm, p = 0.02). In addition, changes in fasting plasma glucose (−40.5 ± 71.0 vs. −3.9 ± 48.5 mg/dl, p = 0.02), serum insulin concentration (−8.0 ± 15.4 vs. +1.1 ± 10.3 µIU/ml, p = 0.009), homeostasis model of assessment-estimated insulin resistance (−3.9 ± 7.1 vs. +0.8 ± 5.9, p = 0.007), the quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (+0.01 ± 0.03 vs. −0.002 ± 0.02, p = 0.04) and HbA1c (−0.5 ± 0.8 vs. −0.1 ± 0.5%, p = 0.01) in the supplemented group were significantly different from the changes in these indicators in the placebo group. Additionally, significant increases in serum HDL-cholesterol (+4.1 ± 4.3 vs. +1.1 ± 5.1 mg/dl, p = 0.01), plasma total antioxidant capacity (+91.7 ± 213.9 vs. −111.9 ± 188.7 mmol/L, p < 0.01) and total glutathione (+68.1 ± 140.8 vs. −35.0 ± 136.1 µmol/L, p = 0.006), and significant decreases in high sensitivity C-reactive protein (−20.4 ± 24.6 vs. −6.8 ± 21.3 µg/ml, p = 0.02) and plasma malondialdehyde concentrations (−0.6 ± 0.9 vs. −0.2 ± 0.7 µmol/L, p = 0.03) were seen following supplementation with zinc compared with the placebo. Zinc supplementation for 12 weeks among diabetic foot ulcer patients had beneficial effects on parameters of ulcer size and metabolic profiles.

The effects of zinc supplementation on wound healing and metabolic status in patients with diabetic foot ulcer: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

The objective of this study was to develop a simple and cost-effective method to produce biofertilizer using agro-wastes. There were five types of agro-wastes being used in this study. They were wastes from watermelon, papaya, pineapple, citrus orange, and banana. Solid-state fermentation method was used to produce biofertilizer, which was then applied into vegetable plantation. Physical property tests were done on the plant samples of 5 weeks of age in order to determine the effectiveness of the biofertilizer. The results of the experiment showed that the plant samples treated with biofertilizer from watermelon, papaya, and banana wastes had promising physical characteristics. Other tests such as analyses of pH values and potassium content in the biofertilizers were also done in this research. It was found that watermelon biofertilizer had the highest pH value (5.15). The banana biofertilizer had the highest content of potassium with a content of 3.932 g K/L.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs40095-014-0147-8.pdf

Utilization of agro-wastes to produce biofertilizer

Evaluation of the possibility of the re-use of agro-industrial orange peel and pulp wastes under solid state fermentation and natural environmental condition as a source of enzymes production [α & β amylase, cellulase, pectinase(s), lipase(s), esterase(s) and peroxidase(s)] the physiological enzymes of lysis and total protein. Different microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and yeast which were charged of waste analyse and have ability to produce previous enzymes and protein. These microorganisms were isolated from the fermented waste and preliminarily identified to test each one of them for their enzymes production and also to test them for inducing the fermentation process under the natural conditions, or by using one of the present enzyme producer strain. The protein and physiological enzymes production were electro-phoretically patterned in different bands. And finally, the possibility to use the fermented waste as a bio-fertilizer was done and it stimulated the growth of wheat plant using water culture, especially after the toxicity of the fermented waste was investigated.

Biodegradation of agro-industrial orange waste under solid state fermentation and natural environmental conditions

A B S T R A C T Studies were carried out on Candida species which includes isolation and identification from urine specimens of 200 hospitalized patients who used urinary catheter (group I) and non catheterized patients (group II) as well as studies on susceptibilities to antifungal agents and secretory aspartic proteinase (ASP), phospholipase (LP) activities, biofilm (BF) formation as virulence factors that were assessed by the standard methods. Neutrophil counts and myeloperoxidase concentrations in patients sera were determined using ELISA. Sixty two Candida isolates were isolated and among them Candida albicans is 56.5%, C. glabrata is 41.9% and C. krusei is 1.6%. The resistance levels to itraconazole and flucytosine were relatively high and susceptible to amphotericin B for all Candida isolates. Candida albicans isolates were positive for all the virulence factors while C. glabrata and C. krusei were negative for SAP and LP activities of both groups and BF formation was detected in C. krusei of group I. Although, catheterized and non-catheterized patients have significant increase in neutrophil counts than healthy controls yet myeloperoxidase concentrations were significantly reduced in catheterized patients. Significant negative correlations between myeloperoxidase concentrations and phospholipase and secretory aspartic proteinase virulence factors were detected in catheterized patients. This may be exaggerated by decreased myeloperoxidase concentrations which should be considered and improved by effective treatment. K e y w o r d s Candiduria, Antifungal susceptibility, Virulence factors, Neutrophil count, Myelo- peroxidase concentration

https://www.ijcmas.com/vol-4-1/Sanaa%20M.%20Ashour,%20et%20al.pdf

Relationship between virulence factors of Candida species with candiduria and myeloperoxidase concentrations

The study of the bacteriological profile, the association of complement C3, interleukin-1beta, and zinc therapy of diabetic foot ulcers (type two) was investigated. Twenty diabetics without foot ulcers (group I), 50 diabetics with foot ulcers (group II), and 10 matched normal controls (group III) were enrolled in this study. Diabetic foot ulcers were mostly of grade 2. The most frequent organisms were Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, respectively. Vancomycin, Imipenem, and Meropenem were the most effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative aerobes, while Imipenem, Meropenem and Chloramphenicol for Gram-positive anaerobes. Group II had abnormal levels of C3 (72%). A significant higher concentration of C3 was found in group II. Group II had abnormal levels of IL-1β (60%). A significant higher concentration of IL-1β was found in group II. Zinc therapy (25 mg/day/oral) induced a highly significant decrease in the frequency of Gram-positive anaerobes and levels of IL-1β. Significantly increases all mineral concentrations in serum level except Mn(+2). The study highlights the prevalence of antibiotic multi-drug resistant bacteria causing foot infections in diabetics which require combined antimicrobial therapy. Altered levels of serum complement C3 and IL-1β might be responsible for depressed immune response which might be causes for delayed wound healing and repeated infections. Zinc supplementation may help in healing the wounds by enhancing the immune response.

Association of complement C3 and interleukin-1 with foot infections in diabetic patients.

In screening for marine bacterial polysaccharide lytic enzymes, the most potent isolate was identified as Bacillus cereus NRC-20. This strain showed high alginase, dextrinase, pectinase and carboxymethyle-cellulase productivity when production medium was adjusted at pH 6.0 and contains (g/l): 3.0 sodium alginate, 3.0 malt extract, 30.0 jatropha cake and inoculated with 8% (v/v) of a 24 h old cell suspension and incubated at 30°C for 48 h on a rotary shaker at 200 rpm. These enzymes mixture were precipitated by 60% acetone and purified by using sephadex G-100, whereas SDS-PAGE suggested a molecular weight of approximately 17, 20, 89 and 279 KDa, respectively. The optimum partially purified enzymes activity when enzyme protein concentration was 27.4 mg/ml and substrate concentration 5.0 g/l shown after 90 min of incubation at 30°C and pH 5 and stable at 60°C for 60 min. The enzymes activities were enhanced in the presence of 0.02 M Na+ and K+ ions and completely inactivated by Mg+2, Cu+2, Co+2 and Pb+2 The enzymes mixture affected the matrix integrity of different microbial biofilms artificially grown on stainless steel sheets of Bacillus subtilis NRRL B-4219, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27953 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922.

	Key words: Bacillus cereus, polysaccharide lytic enzymes production, fermentation parameters, enzyme characterization, biofilm removal.

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Production, purification and characterization of polysaccharide lytic enzymes of a marine isolate, Bacillus cereus NRC-20 and their application in biofilm removal

Oral candidiasis has a strong association with diabetes. This study investigated the prevalence of candidiasis, effects of age and denture wearing on the isolation rate of Candida, virulence factors such as (germ tube (GT), gelatinase assay, phospholipase (PL) activities, biofilm (BF) formation) of different Candida species isolated from 40 confirmed diabetic patients with oral candidiasis and susceptibility of Candida isolates to antifungal agents.  The prevalence of candidiasis was (67%) which is more prevalent in middle age (40-60) years (65%) and among females (65%). Sixty Candida isolates were identified among which Candida albicans represented (53.3%), followed by C. glabrata (31.7%), C. tropicalis (10%) and C. krusei (5%). In denture wearers, the isolation rate of all Candida species was 94.7% while in non denture wearers was 53.7%. The minimun inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of ketoconazle as the lowest concentration of antifungal that inhibited 100% of C. krusei while MIC for flucytosine that inhibited 90.6% and 84.2% of C. albicans and C. glabrata respectively, also the MIC for itraconazole and voriconazole that inhibited 93.5% and 81.2% of C. albicans. The MIC of amphotericin B was defined as the lowest drug concentration causing 100% inhibition of all Candida species. Candida albicans and C. tropicalis isolates were positive for all the virulence factors while C. glabrata and C. krusei were negative for GT, gelatinase and PL activities. C. krusei were positive only for BF formation. InConclusion, Candida spp. in the oral cavity of diabetic patients are potentially pathogenic and can participate in infectious and inflammatory processes since they exhibit most of the virulence factors and resistance to most antifungals. Denture wearing, female sex and middle age are among the risk factors. Controlling serum glucose level and oral hygiene are essential in diabetics.

https://jsrs.journals.ekb.eg/article_18356_b2dfae5bd6afabdeb645e3229c8510da.pdf

Sanaa M. Ashour

Papers

Biodegradation of agro-industrial orange waste under solid state fermentation and natural environmental conditions

Relationship between virulence factors of Candida species with candiduria and myeloperoxidase concentrations

Association of complement C3 and interleukin-1 with foot infections in diabetic patients.

Production, purification and characterization of polysaccharide lytic enzymes of a marine isolate, Bacillus cereus NRC-20 and their application in biofilm removal

Prevalence of oral Candidiasis and Risk Factors in Diabetic Pateints