Prelude. Cycle 1. Introduction. Cycle 2. Structure defines function. Cycle 3. Diversity of cortical functions is provided by inhibition. Cycle 4. Windows on the brain. Cycle 5. A system of rhythms: from simple to complex dynamics. Cycle 6. Synchronization by oscillation. Cycle 7. The brain's default state: self-organized oscillations in rest and sleep. Cycle 8. Perturbation of the default patterns by experience. Cycle 9. The gamma buzz: gluing by oscillations in the waking brain. Cycle 10. Perceptions and actions are brain state-dependent. Cycle 11. Oscillations in the "other cortex:" navigation in real and memory space. Cycle 12. Coupling of systems by oscillations. Cycle 13. The tough problem. References.

Rhythms of the brain

https://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674(00)80783-7.pdf

Subventricular Zone Astrocytes Are Neural Stem Cells in the Adult Mammalian Brain

The epithelia of a number of glands and cavitary organs of the rat and guinea pig have been surveyed, and in all cases investigated, a characteristic tripartite junctional complex has been found between adjacent cells. Although the complex differs in precise arrangement from one organ to another, it has been regularly encountered in the mucosal epithelia of the stomach, intestine, gall bladder, uterus, and oviduct; in the glandular epithelia of the liver, pancreas, parotid, stomach, and thyroid; in the epithelia of pancreatic, hepatic, and salivary ducts; and finally, between the epithelial cells of the nephron (proximal and distal convolution, collecting ducts). The elements of the complex, identified as zonula occludens (tight junction), zonula adhaerens (intermediary junction), and macula adhaerens (desmosome), occupy a juxtaluminal position and succeed each other in the order given in an apical-basal direction. The zonula occludens (tight junction) is characterized by fusion of the adjacent cell membranes resulting in obliteration of the intercellular space over variable distances. Within the obliterated zone, the dense outer leaflets of the adjoining cell membranes converge to form a single intermediate line. A diffuse band of dense cytoplasmic material is often associated with this junction, but its development varies from one epithelium to another. The zonula adhaerens (intermediate junction) is characterized by the presence of an intercellular space ( approximately 200 A) occupied by homogeneous, apparently amorphous material of low density; by strict parallelism of the adjoining cell membranes over distances of 0.2 to 0.5 micro; and by conspicuous bands of dense material located in the subjacent cytoplasmic matrix. The desmosome or macula adhaerens is also characterized by the presence of an intercellular space ( approximately 240 A) which, in this case, contains a central disc of dense material; by discrete cytoplasmic plaques disposed parallel to the inner leaflet of each cell membrane; and by the presence of bundles of cytoplasmic fibrils converging on the plaques. The zonula occludens appears to form a continuous belt-like attachment, whereas the desmosome is a discontinuous, button-like structure. The zomula adhaerens is continuous in most epithelia but discontinuous in some. Observations made during experimental hemoglobinuria in rats showed that the hemoglobin, which undergoes enough concentration in the nephron lumina to act as an electron-opaque mass tracer, does not penetrate the intercellular spaces beyond the zonula occludens. Similar observations were made in pancreatic acini and ducts where discharged zymogen served as a mass tracer. Hence the tight junction is impervious to concentrated protein solutions and appears to function as a diffusion barrier or "seal." The desmosome and probably also the zonula adhaerens may represent intercellular attachment devices.

/pdf/junctional-complexes-in-various-epithelia-9u1kkdzfat.pdf

Junctional complexes in various epithelia

Delayed neuronal death in the gerbil hippocampus following ischemia

http://www.back-in-business-physiotherapy.com/images/files/DescendingControl.pdf

Descending control of pain.

I. Introduction.- 1. A New Morphology.- 2. The Fiber Connections of the Cerebellar Cortex.- 3. The Design of the Cerebellar Cortex.- II. The Purkinje Cell.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Soma of the Purkinje Cell.- 3. The Nucleus.- a) The Chromatin.- b) The Nucleolus.- 4. The Perikaryon of the Purkinje Cell.- a) The Nissl Substance.- b) The Agranular Reticulum.- c) The Hypolemmal Cisterna.- d) The Golgi Apparatus.- e) Lysosomes.- f) Mitochondria.- g) Microtubules and Neurofilaments.- 5. The Dendrites of the Purkinje Cell.- a) The Form of the Dendritic Arborization.- b) Dendritic Thorns.- High Voltage Electron Microscopy of Dendritic Thorns.- c) The Fine Structure of Dendrites and Thorns.- 6. The Purkinje Cell Axon.- a) The Initial Segment.- b) The Recurrent Collaterals.- c) The Terminal Formations of the Collaterals.- Synaptic Relations of the Recurrent Collaterals.- Purkinje Cell Axon Terminals in the Central Nuclei.- 7. The Neuroglial Sheath.- 8. Some Physiological Considerations.- 9. Summary of Intracortical Synaptic Connections of Purkinje Cells.- III. Granule Cells.- 1. The Granule Cell in the Optical Microscope.- a) Some Numerical Considerations.- 2. The Granule Cell in the Electron Microscope.- a) The Nucleus.- b) The Perikaryon.- c) The Dendrites of Granule Cells.- d) The Ascending Axons of Granule Cells.- e) Ectopic Granule Cells.- f) Parallel Fibers.- 3. Summary of Synaptic Connections of Granule Cells.- IV. The Golgi Cells.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Large Golgi Cell.- a) The Form of the Large Golgi Cell.- b) The Fine Structure of Large Golgi Cells.- The Perikaryon of Large Golgi Cells.- The Dendrites of Large Golgi Cells.- The Axonal Plexus of the Goigi Cell.- 3. The Small Goigi Cell.- a) The Fine Structure of Small Goigi Cells.- b) The Synapse en marron.- c) The Dendrites and Axons.- 4. Summary of Synaptic Connections of Golgi Cells.- V. The Lugaro Cell.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Lugaro Cell in the Light Microscope.- 3. Fine Structure of the Lugaro Cel.- 4. Summary of Synaptic Connections of Lugaro Cells.- VI. The Mossy Fibers.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Mossy Fiber in the Light Microscope.- 3. The Glomerulus.- a) The History of a Concept.- b) The Fine Structure of the Glomerulus.- The Form of the Mossy Fiber Terminal.- The Core of the Mossy Fiber.- The Synaptic Vesicles.- The Granule Cell Dendrites.- The Golgi Cell Axonal Plexus.- The Protoplasmic Islet.- 4. The Identification of Different Kinds of Mossy Fibers.- 5. Summary of Intracortical Synaptic Connections of Mossy Fibers.- VII. The Basket Cell.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Form of the Basket Cell and Its Processes.- a) The Dendrites.- b) The Axon and Its Collaterals.- 3. The Fine Structure of the Basket Cell.- a) The Perikaryon.- b) The Dendrites.- c) The Axon.- The Pericellular Basket.- The Pinceau.- The Neuroglial Sheath.- 213.- 4. Summary of Synaptic Connections of Basket Cells.- VIII. The Stellate Cell.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Stellate Cell in the Light Microscope.- a) The Superficial Short Axon Cell.- b) The Deeper Long Axon Stellate Cell.- c) The Difference between Stellate and Basket Cells.- 3. The Fine Structure of the Stellate Cell.- a) The Cell Body.- The Cytoplasm.- b) The Dendrites.- c) The Axon.- 4. Some Physiological Considerations.- 5. Summary of Synaptic Connections of Stellate Cells.- IX. Functional Architectonics without Numbers.- 1. The Uses of Inhibition.- a) Basket Cells.- b) Stellate Cells.- c) Golgi Cells.- d) Purkinje Cells.- 2. The Shapes of Synaptic Vesicles.- 3. A Hitherto Unrecognized Fiber System.- 4. The Inhibitory Transmitter.- X. The Climbing Fiber.- 1. A Little History.- 2. The Climbing Fiber in the Optical Microscope.- a) The Immature Climbing Fiber Plexus.- 3. The Climbing Fiber in the Electron Microscope.- a) The Terminal Arborization in the Molecular Layer.- The Functional Significance of the Climbing Fiber Arborization.- The Advantages of Thorn Synapses.- Relationships with Basket and Stellate Cells.- b) The Climbing Fiber and Its Collaterals in the Granular Layer.- The Climbing Fiber Glomerulus.- The Climbing Fiber Synapse en marron.- The Tendril Collaterals in the Granular Layer.- c) The Fine Structure of Climbing Fiber Terminals and Their Synaptic Junction.- 4. The Connections of the Climbing Fiber.- 5. Some Functional Correlations.- 6. Summary of Intracortical Synaptic Connections of Climbing Fibers.- XI. The Neuroglial Cells of the Cerebellar Cortex.- 1. The Golgi Epithelial Cells.- a) A Little History.- b) The Golgi Epithelial Cell in the Optical Microscope.- c) The Golgi Epithelial Cell in the Electron Microscope.- The Perikaryal Processes.- The Bergmann Fibers.- The Subpial Terminals.- 2. The Velate Protoplasmic Astrocyte.- 3. The Smooth Protoplasmic Astrocyte.- 4. The Oligodendrogliocyte.- 5. The Microglia.- 6. Functional Correlations.- XII. Methods.- 1. Electron Microscopy.- a) Equipment for Perfusion of Adult Rats.- b) The Perfusion Procedure.- c) Equipment for the Dissection of Rat Brains for Electron Microscopy.- d) The Dissection Procedure.- e) The Postfixation of Tissue Slabs.- f) In-Block Staining, Dehydration, and Embedding.- g) Solutions and Other Formulas.- h) The Cutting of 1 urn Semithin Sections of Epon-Embedded Cerebellum.- i) Thin Sectioning.- j) The Staining of Thin Sections on Grids.- k) Electron Microscopy.- 2. The Golgi Methods.- a) Introduction.- b) Perfusion Solutions - Freshly Prepared.- c) Procedures for the Golgi Methods.- d) Dehydration and Infiltration of Slabs of Golgi-Impregnated Tissue for Embedding in Nitrocellulose.- 3. High Voltage Electron Microscopy.- a) Embedding and Sectioning of Golgi Material.- b) Counterstaining.- 4. Electron Microscopy of Freeze-Fractured Material.- References.

Cerebellar Cortex: Cytology and Organization

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The Fine Structure of the Nervous System: Neurons and Their Supporting Cells

The fine structure of the nervous system: The neurons and supporting cells

1. Thin sections of representative neurons from intramural, sympathetic and dorsal root ganglia, medulla oblongata, and cerebellar cortex were studied with the aid of the electron microscope. 2. The Nissl substance of these neurons consists of masses of endoplasmic reticulum showing various degrees of orientation; upon and between the cisternae, tubules, and vesicles of the reticulum lie clusters of punctate granules, 10 to 30 mµ in diameter. 3. A second system of membranes can be distinguished from the endoplasmic reticulum of the Nissl bodies by shallower and more tightly packed cisternae and by absence of granules. Intermediate forms between the two membranous systems have been found. 4. The cytoplasm between Nissl bodies contains numerous mitochondria, rounded lipid inclusions, and fine filaments.

/pdf/the-fine-structure-of-neurons-2397v6xmgk.pdf

The fine structure of neurons.

A number of different synapses have been described in the medulla, cerebellar cortex, and cerebral cortex of the rat. All of these possess the same fundamental fine structure as follows: 1. Close apposition of the limiting membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic cells without any protoplasmic continuity across the synapse. The two apposed membranes are separated by a cleft about 200 A wide, and display localized regions of thickening and increased density. 2. The presynaptic expansion of the axon, the end-foot or bouton terminal, contains a collection of mitochondria and clusters of small vesicles about 200 to 650 A in diameter. Although the significance of these structures in the physiology of the synapse is still unknown, two suggestions are made: that the mitochondria, by means of the relation between their enzymatic activity and ion transport, participate in the electrical phenomena about the synapse; and that the small synaptic vesicles provide the morphological representation of the prejunctional, subcellular units of neurohumoral discharge at the synapse demanded by physiological evidence.

/pdf/synapses-in-the-central-nervous-system-1nxoo0ng2g.pdf

Sanford L. Palay

Papers

Cerebellar Cortex: Cytology and Organization

The Fine Structure of the Nervous System: Neurons and Their Supporting Cells

The fine structure of the nervous system: The neurons and supporting cells

The fine structure of neurons.

Synapses in the central nervous system