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Modern Applied Statistics With S

What is ecological speciation

The diversity of life is ultimately generated by evolution, and much attention has focused on the rapid evolution of ecological traits. Yet, the tendency for many ecological traits to instead remain similar over time [niche conservatism (NC)] has many consequences for the fundamental patterns and processes studied in ecology and conservation biology. Here, we describe the mounting evidence for the importance of NC to major topics in ecology (e.g. species richness, ecosystem function) and conservation (e.g. climate change, invasive species). We also review other areas where it may be important but has generally been overlooked, in both ecology (e.g. food webs, disease ecology, mutualistic interactions) and conservation (e.g. habitat modification). We summarize methods for testing for NC, and suggest that a commonly used and advocated method (involving a test for phylogenetic signal) is potentially problematic, and describe alternative approaches. We suggest that considering NC: (1) focuses attention on the within-species processes that cause traits to be conserved over time, (2) emphasizes connections between questions and research areas that are not obviously related (e.g. invasives, global warming, tropical richness), and (3) suggests new areas for research (e.g. why are some clades largely nocturnal? why do related species share diseases?).

/pdf/niche-conservatism-as-an-emerging-principle-in-ecology-and-3ij66fytmx.pdf

Niche conservatism as an emerging principle in ecology and conservation biology.

Modern attempts to produce biogeographic maps focus on the distribution of species, and the maps are typically drawn without phylogenetic considerations. Here, we generate a global map of zoogeographic regions by combining data on the distributions and phylogenetic relationships of 21,037 species of amphibians, birds, and mammals. We identify 20 distinct zoogeographic regions, which are grouped into 11 larger realms. We document the lack of support for several regions previously defined based on distributional data and show that spatial turnover in the phylogenetic composition of vertebrate assemblages is higher in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. We further show that the integration of phylogenetic information provides valuable insight on historical relationships among regions, permitting the identification of evolutionarily unique regions of the world.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/339/6115/74.full.pdf

An Update of Wallace’s Zoogeographic Regions of the World

Almost all organisms live in environments that have been altered, to some degree, by human activities. Because behaviour mediates interactions between an individual and its environment, the ability of organisms to behave appropriately under these new conditions is crucial for determining their immediate success or failure in these modified environments. While hundreds of species are suffering dramatically from these environmental changes, others, such as urbanized and pest species, are doing better than ever. Our goal is to provide insights into explaining such variation. We first summarize the responses of some species to novel situations, including novel risks and resources, habitat loss/fragmentation, pollutants and climate change. Using a sensory ecology approach, we present a mechanistic framework for predicting variation in behavioural responses to environmental change, drawing from models of decision-making processes and an understanding of the selective background against which they evolved. Where immediate behavioural responses are inadequate, learning or evolutionary adaptation may prove useful, although these mechanisms are also constrained by evolutionary history. Although predicting the responses of species to environmental change is difficult, we highlight the need for a better understanding of the role of evolutionary history in shaping individuals’ responses to their environment and provide suggestion for future work.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00166.x

Evolution and behavioural responses to human-induced rapid environmental change.

Birds are plagued by an impressive diversity of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather- degrading bacteria. Many of these ectoparasites have severe negative effects on host fitness. It is therefore not surprising that selection on birds has favored a variety of possible adaptations for dealing with ectoparasites. The functional signifi- cance of some of these defenses has been well documented. Others have barely been studied, much less tested rigorously. In this article we review the evidence - or lack thereof - for many of the purported mechanisms birds have for dealing with ectoparasites. We concentrate on features of the plumage and its components, as well as anti-parasite behaviors. In some cases, we present original data from our own recent work. We make recommendations for future studies that could im- prove our understanding of this poorly known aspect of avian biology.

/pdf/how-birds-combat-ectoparasites-1aqagvjwuu.pdf

How Birds Combat Ectoparasites

The beaks of Darwin's finches and other birds are among the best known examples of adaptive evolution. Beak morphology is usually interpreted in relation to its critical role in feeding. However, t...

/pdf/adaptive-significance-of-avian-beak-morphology-for-w08k8b5y3d.pdf

Adaptive significance of avian beak morphology for ectoparasite control

Cospeciation occurs when interacting groups, such as hosts and parasites, speciate in tandem, generating congruent phylogenies. Cospeciation can be a neutral process in which parasites speciate merely because they are isolated on diverging host islands. Adaptive evolution may also play a role, but this has seldom been tested. We explored the adaptive basis of cospeciation by using a model system consisting of feather lice (Columbicola) and their pigeon and dove hosts (Columbiformes). We reconstructed phylogenies for both groups by using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Both phylogenies were well resolved and well supported. Comparing these phylogenies revealed significant cospeciation and correlated evolution of host and parasite body size. The match in body size suggested that adaptive constraints limit the range of hosts lice can use. We tested this hypothesis by transferring lice among hosts of different sizes to simulate host switches. The results of these experiments showed that lice cannot establish viable populations on novel hosts that differ in size from the native host. To determine why size matters, we measured three components of louse fitness: attachment, feeding, and escape from host defense (preening). Lice could remain attached to, and feed on, hosts varying in size by an order of magnitude. However, they could not escape from preening on novel hosts that differed in size from the native host. Overall, our results suggest that host defense reinforces cospeciation in birds and feather lice by preventing lice from switching between hosts of different sizes.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/100/26/15694.full.pdf

Host defense reinforces host-parasite cospeciation

Phylogenetic congruence is governed by various macroevolutionary events, including cospeciation, host switch- ing, sorting, duplication, and failure to speciate. The relative frequency of these events may be influenced by factors that govern the distribution and abundance of the interacting groups; i.e., ecological factors. If so, it may be possible to predict the degree of phylogenetic congruence between two groups from information about their ecology. Unfortunately, adequate comparative ecological data are not available for many of the systems that have been subjected to cophylogenetic analysis. An exception is provided by chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera), which parasitize birds and mammals. For a few genera of these lice, enough data have now been published to begin exploring the relationship between ecology and congruence. In general, there is a correspondence between important ecological factors and the degree of phylogenetic congruence. Careful comparison of these genera suggests that dispersal is a more fundamental barrier to host switching among related hosts than is establishment. Transfer experiments show that host-specific lice can survive and reproduce on novel hosts that are similar in size to the native host as long as the lice can disperse to these hosts. To date, studies of parasite dispersal have been mainly inferential. A better understanding of the role of dispersal will require more direct data on dispersal frequency and distances. (Cospeciation; host specificity; host switching; lice; parasite; phoresis; Phthiraptera; phylogeny.) Congruent phylogenies are produced by parallel spe- ciation in unrelated lineages. If every speciation event in one group were accompanied by a cospeciation event in the other group and if no species were lost from their original associations, then the phylogenies would be completely congruent (although branch lengths might differ). In reality, phylogenies of interacting taxa sel- dom show perfect congruence. Generally speaking, the degree of congruence is correlated with the ecological intimacy of the groups. Interactions vary from obligate associations to opportunistic encounters. One end of the spectrum is represented by mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other eukaryotic organelles evolved from free-living prokaryotic ancestors. The other end of the spectrum consists of far less intimate interactions, such as those be- tween generalist herbivores and their host plants. Most interactions lie between these two extremes. Phylogenetic congruence is governed by the macroevolutionary events reviewed by Johnson and Clayton (this issue). The relative frequency of these events is presumably influenced by ecological factors that govern the distribution and abundance of the interacting groups. Thus, it may be possible to predict the degree of phylogenetic congruence between two groups from information about their ecology. Sufficient comparative ecological data are now available for several genera of chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) that parasitize birds and mammals. In this study, we used ecological data and phylogenies of lice and hosts to explore the relationship between ecology and phylogenetic congruence.

http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/43306.pdf

Sarah E. Bush

Papers

How Birds Combat Ectoparasites

Adaptive significance of avian beak morphology for ectoparasite control

Host defense reinforces host-parasite cospeciation

Ecology of congruence: past meets present.

Coevolution of Life on Hosts: Integrating Ecology and History