3.2.3. Hydroformylation 2467 3.2.4. Dimerization 2468 3.2.5. Oxidative Cleavage and Ozonolysis 2469 3.2.6. Metathesis 2470 4. Terpenes 2472 4.1. Pinene 2472 4.1.1. Isomerization: R-Pinene 2472 4.1.2. Epoxidation of R-Pinene 2475 4.1.3. Isomerization of R-Pinene Oxide 2477 4.1.4. Hydration of R-Pinene: R-Terpineol 2478 4.1.5. Dehydroisomerization 2479 4.2. Limonene 2480 4.2.1. Isomerization 2480 4.2.2. Epoxidation: Limonene Oxide 2480 4.2.3. Isomerization of Limonene Oxide 2481 4.2.4. Dehydroisomerization of Limonene and Terpenes To Produce Cymene 2481

Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Biomass into Chemicals

Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review.

Biodegradation of poly(vinyl alcohol) based materials

Thermal processing of starch-based polymers

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=textiles_facpub

Citric acid cross-linking of starch films

Starch-PVOH cast films were prepared with and without crosslinking agent (hexamethoxymethylmelamine) in the absence of plasticizer. Moisture absorption in films without crosslinking agent at a low relative humidity was similar to that of PVOH and increased as the relative humidity increased. Films with crosslinking agent showed moisture absorption linearly proportional to the relative humidity. Significant improvement in resistance to water disintegration for crosslinked starch-PVOH films was observed. While the tensile strength decreased with increased relative humidity, crosslinking significantly improved the tensile strength. Increased PVOH content improved elongation of films even when the relative humidity was 80% or higher. Biodegradation studies revealed that the degradation rate was negatively correlated with the PVOH content in films and crosslinking generated more converged degradation curves.

Starch- polyvinyl alcohol crosslinked film— performance and biodegradation

Specialty chemicals based on renewable resources are desirable commodities due to their eco-friendly nature and "green" product characteristics. These chemicals can demonstrate physical and chemical properties comparable to those of conventional petroleum-based products. Suitably functionalized amines in the triacylglycerol structure can function as an antioxidant, as well as an antiwear/antifriction agent. In addition, the amphiphilic nature of seed oils makes them an excellent candidate as base fluid. The reaction of amine and epoxidized seed oils in the presence of a catalyst almost always leads to different intra/intermolecular cross-linked products. In most cases, the triacylglycerol structure is lost due to disruption of the ester linkage. Currently, there is no reported literature describing the aminolysis of vegetable oil without cross-linking. Here the epoxy group of the epoxidized soybean oil has been selectively reacted with amines to give amine-functionalized soybean oil. The optimization procedure involved various amines and catalysts for maximum aminolysis, without cross-linking and disruption of the ester linkage. Diethylamine and ZnCl2 were found to be the best. NMR, IR, and nitrogen analysis were used to characterize the products.

Synthesis of diethylamine-functionalized soybean oil.

X-ray diffraction, CP/MAS C-13 NMR, DSC, FTIR and fluorescence microscopy have been used to study the structure, compatibility, and morphology of films made from starch, poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) (EAA), and polyethylene (PE) before and after exposure to a mixture of highly amylolytic bacteria. The components of starch, amylose and amylopectin, interact with EAA via the formation of V-type inclusion complexes and hydrogen bonds. PE appears to be immiscible with the starch–EAA complex, with each forming sheetlike domains. The amylopectin in the films is susceptible to digestion by the bacterial consortium while the crystalline EAA–amylose complex is resistant. Digestion begins at the film surface and then proceeds inwards with sheetlike areas of starch removed. The good compatibility between starch and EAA as well as migration of EAA to the film surface explains the resistance of such films to digestion by conventional amylases.

Polymer compatibility and biodegradation of Starch-poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid)-polyethylene blends

Biodegradable cast films of about 50 μm thickness were fabricated by blending oppositely charged biopolymers such as anionic starch–chitosan, and cationic starch–pectin. The tensile strength and elongation at break (%) of films were evaluated as well as their capacity to degrade in compost. Films recovered from soil every 48 h showed consistent degradation (weight loss), diminution of the polymer’s characteristic peak absorbance in the carbohydrate fingerprint region of the FTIR, and changes in the surface morphology via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Anionic starch–chitosan films had much superior tensile strength and elongation compared to cationic starch–pectin, suggesting that the ionic bonds formed between anionic-starch and positively charged groups in chitosan polymer were much more stable and stronger. Initially, both films lost about 36% weight within 96 h, which also correlated well with the loss in the characteristic absorption peaks in the region of the infrared spectrum typical of biopolymers. The total mineralization of films by microorganisms in compost soil was also measured using respirometric techniques. Though the rate of mineralization differed for two formulations, total mineralization (extent) for both films were achieved within 45 days.

Mechanical Property and Biodegradability of Cast Films Prepared from Blends of Oppositely Charged Biopolymers

Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) does not require optically transparent samples and is, therefore, well suited for analysis of solid-state samples. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)-PAS of solid materials containing protein exhibited strong absorption in the amide I and amide II regions of the IR spectrum. Growth of a filamentous fungus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, on cellulose discs was quantitatively determined by monitoring amide I absorption with FTIR-PAS.

Sherald H. Gordon

Papers

Starch- polyvinyl alcohol crosslinked film— performance and biodegradation

Synthesis of diethylamine-functionalized soybean oil.

Polymer compatibility and biodegradation of Starch-poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid)-polyethylene blends

Mechanical Property and Biodegradability of Cast Films Prepared from Blends of Oppositely Charged Biopolymers

Determination of solid-state fungal growth by Fourier transform infrared-photoacoustic spectroscopy