EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on acrylamide (AA) in food. AA has widespread uses as an industrial chemical. It is also formed when certain foods are prepared at temperatures above 120 °C and low moisture, especially in foods containing asparagine and reducing sugars. The CONTAM Panel evaluated 43 419 analytical results from food commodities. AA was found at the highest levels in solid coffee substitutes and coffee, and in potato fried products. Mean and 95th percentile dietary AA exposures across surveys and age groups were estimated at 0.4 to 1.9 μg/kg body weight (b.w.) per day and 0.6 to 3.4 μg/kg b.w. per day, respectively. The main contributor to total dietary exposure was generally the category ‘Potato fried products (except potato crisps and snacks)’. Preferences in home-cooking can have a substantial impact on human dietary AA exposure. Upon oral intake, AA is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed to all organs. AA is extensively metabolised, mostly by conjugation with glutathione but also by epoxidation to glycidamide (GA). Formation of GA is considered to represent the route underlying the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of AA. Neurotoxicity, adverse effects on male reproduction, developmental toxicity and carcinogenicity were identified as possible critical endpoints for AA toxicity from experimental animal studies. The data from human studies were inadequate for dose-response assessment. The CONTAM Panel selected BMDL10 values of 0.43 mg/kg b.w. per day for peripheral neuropathy in rats and of 0.17 mg/kg b.w. per day for neoplastic effects in mice. The Panel concluded that the current levels of dietary exposure to AA are not of concern with respect to non-neoplastic effects. However, although the epidemiological associations have not demonstrated AA to be a human carcinogen, the margins of exposure (MOEs) indicate a concern for neoplastic effects based on animal evidence. © European Food Safety Authority, 2015

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EFSA CONTAM Panel (EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain), 2015. Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food

Anti-oxidative effects of curcumin on immobilization-induced oxidative stress in rat brain, liver and kidney

Acrylamide,a potential human carcinogen,formed in Maillard reaction model system was analyzed through pyrolysis-GC/MS.The study revealed that de-carboxylated schiff base and dicarbonyl compounds,such as pyruvic aldehyde,diacetyl,glyoxal,played important roles in acrylamide formation via a browning reaction,and comfirmed some key mediates in the formation of acrylamide.A mechanism for the formation of acrylamide at last was proposed.

Acrylamide formation mechanism in heated foods

Protective effects of morin against acrylamide-induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity: A multi-biomarker approach.

SUMMARY. Deep-fat frying is widely used in food industries because of its low cost and high demand, since it produces convenient food of high acceptability. The process is based on the oil-food interaction at high temperatures, which cooks and dehydrates the food, leading to physical and chemical changes, such as starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, flavoring and color production via Maillard reaction. Some food and oil compounds are lost in the frying process, and potentially toxic compounds are developed in the oxidized oil. Although widely studied, many of these compounds have not been fully identified. The purpose of this study was to review literature findings on changes in food caused by the frying process.

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Changes in food caused by deep fat frying--a review.

Protective effect of allicin against acrylamide-induced hepatocyte damage in vitro and in vivo.

Furan, a widely used industrial compound, has been found in many heat-treated foods, especially baby food. The presence of furan in food raises concerns about public health. In this study, we evaluated the protective effect of salidroside (SR) against furan-induced hepatocyte damage in mice livers. The in vitro antioxidant effects of SR were also evaluated. The results suggested that furan significantly increased hepatocyte damage, as proven by the increased activities of aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and levels of direct bilirubin (DBIL). Furan also caused oxidative stress, as evidenced by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity in mice livers. Pretreatment with SR markedly attenuated the activities of AST, ALT, GST and the levels of DBIL, ROS, and MDA in a dose-dependent manner. The protective effects of SR against furan-induced hepatocyte damage were due to its excellent ability to scavenge free radicals such as 2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radicals, ˙OH, 2,2-di(4-tert-octylphenyl)-1-picrylhydrazyl radicals and ˙O2−. Thus, SR exerted excellent antioxidant effects, and it may be a novel therapeutic and preventive agent for oxidative stress-related diseases.

Antioxidant effect of salidroside and its protective effect against furan-induced hepatocyte damage in mice

In our present paper, the effect of water activity and processing conditions in reconstituted potato chips was considered as a model to investigate the changes of acrylamide (AA) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). The results suggested that the formation of AA and HMF was highly correlated with frying temperature and time. Water activity could also influence the formation of AA and HMF. Meanwhile, the formation of HMF has significant correlation with the formation of AA in reconstituted potato chips. A typical exponential growth curve was observed by plotting AA levels vs HMF content which were all determined under different heating condition: . The model could be used as a tool for estimating the formation of AA when the content of HMF was known.

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Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in reconstituted potato chips during frying.

Poor understanding of the absorption of food-derived angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides across the membrane limits their application in regulating and preventing hypertension. This study investigated the interaction of egg-derived ACE inhibitory tri-peptides ADF, FGR, and MIR with the membrane using molecular dynamic simulation and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The structural variations in peptides during absorption were analyzed. The effect of peptides on the properties of membranes was also calculated during simulation. The binding mechanism between peptides and membrane was further characterized using ITC. The results showed that the structures of peptides were stable during simulation. Amino acid residues Arg, Phe, and Met contributed to the absorption of peptides across the membrane. Hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic interactions stabilized the interaction of peptides with the membrane. The absorption of peptides ADF, FGR, and MIR into the membrane increased the membrane thickness of 0.78, 0.82, and 0.80 nm, respectively, and increased lipid lateral diffusion. The ITC results showed that peptides FGR and MIR binding to the membrane were spontaneous, entropy driven, and hydrophobic residues Phe and Met of peptides might contribute to peptides-membrane interactions, which was consistent with molecular dynamic simulation results. 

Mechanism of interactions between egg protein derived tri‐peptides and cellular membrane by molecular dynamic simulation and isothermal titration calorimetry

COVID-19 is a global health emergency that causes serious concerns. A global effort is underway to identify drugs for the treatment of COVID-19. One possible solution to the present problem is to develop drugs that can inhibit SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro), a coronavirus protein that been considered as one among many drug targets. In this work, lactoferrin from Bos taurus L. was in silico hydrolyzed. The bioactivity, water solubility, and ADMET properties of the generated peptides were predicted using various online tools. The molecular interactions between Mpro and the peptides were studied using molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation. The results demonstrated that peptide GSRY was predicted to have better physicochemical properties, and the value of '-C DOCKER interaction energy' between peptide GSRY and Mpro was 80.8505 kcal/mol. The interaction between the peptide GSRY and the native ligand N3 co-crystallized with Mpro had overlapped amino acids, i.e., HIS163, GlY143, GLU166, GLN189 and MET165. Molecular dynamic simulation revealed that Mpro/GSRY complexes were stable. Collectively, the peptide GSRY may be a potential candidate drug against Mpro of SARS-CoV-2.

Sijia Wu

Papers

Protective effect of allicin against acrylamide-induced hepatocyte damage in vitro and in vivo.

Antioxidant effect of salidroside and its protective effect against furan-induced hepatocyte damage in mice

Acrylamide and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural formation in reconstituted potato chips during frying.

Mechanism of interactions between egg protein derived tri‐peptides and cellular membrane by molecular dynamic simulation and isothermal titration calorimetry

Identification of lactoferrin-derived peptides as potential inhibitors against the main protease of SARS-CoV-2.