A review on biodiesel production using catalyzed transesterification

The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels have led to a reduction in petroleum reserves. Petroleum based fuels are obtained from limited reserves. These finite reserves are highly concentrated in certain region of the world. Therefore, those countries not having these resources are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to the import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for alternative fuels, which can be produced from materials available within the country. Although vegetative oils can be fuel for diesel engines, but their high viscosities, low volatilities and poor cold flow properties have led to the investigation of its various derivatives. Among the different possible sources, fatty acid methyl esters, known as Biodiesel fuel derived from triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fates) by transesterification with methanol, present the promising alternative substitute to diesel fuels and have received the most attention now a day. The main advantages of using Biodiesel are its renewability, better quality exhaust gas emission, its biodegradability and the organic carbon present in it is photosynthetic in origin. It does not contribute to a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently to the green house effect. This paper reviews the source of production and characterization of vegetable oils and their methyl ester as the substitute of the petroleum fuel and future possibilities of Biodiesel production.

Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel: A review

This book includes detailed information on many of the factors surrounding injuries--the man-made systems and products involved, the groups at greatest risk, and effective ways to protect people from injuries. The circumstances under which injuries occur, the etiologic agents, and the characteristics of the people involved are examined. Chapter 2 summarizes the importance of injuries in relation to other prominent health problems. Subsequent chapters describe injury mortality and, in cases where good population-based studies are available, nonfatal injuries. The analyses in Chapters 3-15 are primarily of injury deaths during 1977-1979, the most recent years for which detailed mortality data were available in mid-1983 for deaths other than those related to motor vehicles. Most of these data were collected by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). Chapters 16-20 summarize data on deaths from motor vehicle-related injuries. Most of these detailed data were obtained from the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Data from the 1980 census provided denominators for the rates throughout the book, except for trendline calculations which were based on interpolations between census years. The purpose of this book is to improve understanding of the nature and magnitude of the injury problem in the United States. Although it includes some discussion of ameliorative approaches, there is no comprehensive coverage of injury research, theory, or prevention, since these have been comprehensively discussed elsewhere. This book is a thorough documentation of the injury problem. Most of the information presented is new, the product of analyses not previously published in any form.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.2307%2F3342319.pdf

The injury fact book

The extent to which member states transpose EU directives in a timely fashion is often argued to be strongly associated with the general effectiveness of national bureaucracies. But what kind of institutional solutions ensure better performance? This paper examines the patterns and effects of departmental oversight across 28 ministries in Estonia, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia. In mapping the strength of oversight, it relies on around 90 structured interviews regarding the rules-in-use on transposition planning, legal review and monitoring of deadlines. The analysis of the impact of departmental oversight is based on an original dataset of over 300 directives with transposition deadlines between January 2005 and December 2008.

On the european union

Progress in biodiesel processing

Effect of ethanol–palm kernel oil ratio on alkali-catalyzed biodiesel yield

Biodiesel production from Nigerian palm kernel oil: effect of KOH concentration on yield

Nigeria is a developing country with an insufficient supply of energy to meet the continuously growing demand. However, there are several biomass resources available within the country. This paper presents a desk review, which investigates the potential resources for biomass energy generation within the country. Energy policies to aid biomass use as an energy source within the country were also reviewed. Biomass resources identified within Nigeria include forest residues, agricultural residues, human and animal wastes, aquatic biomass, and energy crops. However, several of the resources, particularly agricultural residues, have competing uses, such as livestock feed and soil rejuvenation. An estimation of the technical energy potential of the biomass resources revealed that about 2.33 EJ could be generated from the available resources in Nigeria. Agricultural residues have an energy potential of about 1.09 EJ, with cassava, maize, oil palm, plantain, rice, and sorghum being the major contributors. Animal wastes, municipal solid waste, and forest residues have energy potentials of 0.65, 0.11, and 0.05 EJ, respectively. The potentials of wood fuel and charcoal are 0.38 and 0.05 EJ, respectively. The study found that despite the available potential and existing policies, not much has been done in the implementation of large-scale bioenergy within the country. However, there has been laboratory and research-scale investigations. The review suggests that more policies and stronger enforcement will aid bioenergy development within the country. From the review, it has been suggested that the agricultural sector needs to be developed to generate more biomass resources. More research, development, and implementation have to be carried out on biomass resources and bioenergy generation processes. The production of non-edible energy crops in marginal lands should also be considered prime to the development of bioenergy within the country.

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9276/9/8/92/pdf

An Assessment of Potential Resources for Biomass Energy in Nigeria

An assessment of the potential availability of selected residues from maize, cassava, millet, plantain, groundnuts, sorghum, oil palm, palm kernel, and cowpeas for possible conversion to renewable energy in Nigeria has been made. It is estimated that nearly 58 million tonnes of these residues were potentially available in the year 2004 with energy potential of about 20.8 million tonnes oil equivalents. The residue availability for 2010 is projected to be about 80 million tonnes. These residues, when converted to energetically usable forms, can substitute or complement the fossil energy sources in Nigeria by more than 80%.

Potential Availability of Energetically Usable Crop Residues in Nigeria

Global concerns about the depletion of the world’s non-renewable energy sources and the
associated environmental impact of fossil fuel provided the incentives to seek alternatives to
petroleum-based fuels. Nigeria is no exception in the fears for crude oil production going into
extinction as recently stated by the Energy Commission of Nigeria. Alternative renewable fuel,
found in vegetable oils such as Palm kernel oil (PKO), which abound in Nigerian forest, is
characterized with high viscosities thus limiting their applications as fuel. The use of
transesterified vegetable oils as fuel has been yielding successful results besides being a
domestic, renewable resource that provides environmental benefits with lower emissions. In this
work, laboratory scale quantities of ethyl ester of PKO (EEPKO) were produced and
characterized as diesel fuel. KOH was selected to catalyze the transesterification process of PKO
with ethanol using 100g PKO, 20.0g ethanol, 1.0% KOH at 60OC reaction temperature and 100
minutes reaction time. The process was triplicated and average results evaluated. The biodiesel
produced was characterized as alternative diesel fuel through tests for specific gravity, viscosity,
cloud point, and pour point following ASTM standard test procedures. The transesterification
process yielded 92g PKO biodiesel. At 15.56OC, specific gravity is higher (1.033958 times) than
that of commercial grade petroleum diesel (D2). At 40OC, EEPKO had 85.06% reduction of
viscosity over its raw vegetable oil, thus enhancing its fluidity in diesel engine. Higher pour
point (2OC) and cloud point (6OC) were obtained for EEPKO compared to -12OC, and -16OC
respectively obtained for D2. Generally, results obtained were found to be in good agreement
with previous works and within limits set by a number of International Standards for biodiesel.
These findings will find useful applications in energy sector of the Nigeria economy.

Simeon Olatayo Jekayinfa

Papers

Effect of ethanol–palm kernel oil ratio on alkali-catalyzed biodiesel yield

Biodiesel production from Nigerian palm kernel oil: effect of KOH concentration on yield

An Assessment of Potential Resources for Biomass Energy in Nigeria

Potential Availability of Energetically Usable Crop Residues in Nigeria

Alkali-catalysed laboratory production and testing of biodiesel fuel from Nigerian palm kernel oil.