creased by 0.47 SDs under active learning (n = 158 studies), and that the odds ratio for failing was 1.95 under traditional lecturing (n = 67 studies). These results indicate that average examination scores improved by about 6% in active learning sections, and that students in classes with traditional lecturing were 1.5 times more likely to fail than were students in classes with active learning. Heterogeneity analyses indicated that both results hold across the STEM disciplines, that active learning increases scores on concept inventories more than on course examinations, and that active learning appears effective across all class sizes—although the greatest effects are in small (n ≤ 50) classes. Trim and fill analyses and fail-safe n calculations suggest that the results are not due to publication bias. The results also appear robust to variation in the methodological rigor of the included studies, based on the quality of controls over student quality and instructor identity. This is the largest and most comprehensive metaanalysis of undergraduate STEM education published to date. The results raise questions about the continued use of traditional lecturing as a control in research studies, and support active learning as the preferred, empirically validated teaching practice in regular classrooms.

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Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics

National Science Education Standards

미국의 “전국 수학 교사 협의회”(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, NCTM)는 1989년부터 〈학교 수학의 교육과정과 평가 규준〉(1989), 〈수학 가르침(교수)의 전문성 규준〉(1991), 〈학교 수학의 평가(시험) 규준〉(NCTM, 1995), 〈학교 수학의 원리와 규준〉(2000)을 출판하여 미국의 수학 교육 의 전망(목표, 나아갈 길)과 규준(실행 지침)을 제시하였다. 수학 교사들로 구성된 미국의 NCTM은 학생, 학부모, 학교 행정가 등 많은 사람들과 힘을 합하여 모든 학생들에게 수준 높은 수학 교육을 받을 수 있는 여건(환경, 기회)을 조성하는 데 구심점의 역할을 하였다. 한편 많은 관련 단체들은 여러 배경과 능력을 가진 학생들이 전문성을 지닌 교사(특수 교사를 일컫는 밀이 아니다. 수학 교과를 이해하고 수학의 전문성과 특수성을 가르칠 수 있는 일반 교사를 일컫는 말이다.)로부터 미래를 대비해 평등하고, 진취적이며, 지원이 잘 이루어지고, 공학 도구(IT)가 잘 갖춰진 환경에서 중요한 수학적 아이디어를 이해하면서 학습할 수 있는 수학 교실(미국에서는 우리나라처럼 수학 교사가 수학 시간에 학생의 방(교실: Homeroom)에 찾아가지 않고 학생들이 선생의 방(수학 교실: Classroom)을 찾아온다. 전형적인 수학 교실의 사진은 2쪽에 나와 있다.)을 만들기 위해 함께 힘썼다. NCTM에서 출간한 여러 규준들은 우리나라의 제6차와 제7차 교육과정에도 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 이 글에서는 NCTM(2000)에서 제시한 학습 원리를 간단히 살펴본 다음 이를 중심으로 현재 미국 수학 교육의 교수ㆍ학습 이론의 동향을 살펴본다.

미국 NCTM의 Principles and Standards for School Mathematics에 나타난 수학과 교수,학습의 이론

Traditional engineering instruction is deductive, beginning with theories and progressing to the applications of those theories Alternative teaching approaches are more inductive Topics are introduced by presenting specific observations, case studies or problems, and theories are taught or the students are helped to discover them only after the need to know them has been established This study reviews several of the most commonly used inductive teaching methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching The paper defines each method, highlights commonalities and specific differences, and reviews research on the effectiveness of the methods While the strength of the evidence varies from one method to another, inductive methods are consistently found to be at least equal to, and in general more effective than, traditional deductive methods for achieving a broad range of learning outcomes

Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases

Engineering as a profession faces the challenge of making the use of technology ubiquitous and transparent in society while at the same time raising young learners' interest and understanding of how technology works. Educational efforts in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (i.e., STEM disciplines) continue to grow in pre-kindergarten through 12th grade (P-12) as part of addressing this challenge. This article explores how engineering education can support acquisition of a wide range of knowledge and skills associated with comprehending and using STEM knowledge to accomplish real world problem solving through design, troubleshooting, and analysis activities. We present several promising instructional models for teaching engineering in P-12 classrooms as examples of how engineering can be integrated into the curriculum. While the introduction of engineering education into P-12 classrooms presents a number of opportunities for STEM learning, it also raises issues regarding teacher knowledge and professional development, and institutional challenges such as curricular standards and high-stakes assessments. These issues are considered briefly with respect to providing direction for future research and development on engineering in P-12.

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Advancing Engineering Education in P-12 Classrooms

Background

Between 2000 and 2006 the Vanderbilt, Northwestern, Texas and Harvard/MIT Engineering Research Center (VaNTH/ERC) developed, tested, and implemented a set of educational innovations based largely on the ideas presented in the book How People Learn (HPL) and an instructional design known as the the STAR Legacy Cycle. The motivation for this study was to synthesize the results of this work. Published and unpublished experimental and quasi-experimental assessments were included in this synthesis.

Purpose (Hypothesis)

The fundamental hypotheses tested were whether a set of modules involving challenge-based instruction and other course innovations, often involving advanced computer-based technologies, improved student performance in a variety of educational settings and student populations, and whether improvements could be achieved by instructors other than the developers of the innovations.

Design/Method

Meta-analysis of effects from thirty-three separate modules in five courses in bioengineering domains was undertaken, along with three case studies.

Results

Results from the experimental (randomized) and stronger-quasi experimental studies revealed a weighted effect size of 0.655 (p < 0.001). Studies using randomized designs produced smaller effects, and studies using measures of transfer and adaptive expertise to index outcomes produced larger effects. Analyses also revealed that the results can be replicated by instructors other than the developers of the modules, in a variety of student populations and educational settings, and at other institutions.

Conclusions

Overall, the challenge-based modules and other innovations have moderate overall effects on improved student performance. They can be implemented successively by other instructors in a variety of educational settings and student populations.

A Research Synthesis of the Effectiveness, Replicability, and Generality of the VaNTH Challenge-based Instructional Modules in Bioengineering

As the importance of the right ventricle in many diseases and conditions has been realized, the need for quantitative assessment of the motion and contraction of the right ventricular free wall (RVFW) has become apparent. This study applied the myocardial tagging magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique to the normal RVFW to elucidate normal heterogeneity in RV motion and contractile patterns. The RVFW was divided into three segments (inferior, mid and superior) in each of three slices (apical, mid and basal) to allow for a detailed analysis of the motion and contraction. Percent segmental shortening (PSS) was used to measure the amount of contraction, and a vector analysis was used to quantitate the trajectory of the RVFW through systole. PSS increased monotonically through time to an average across all segments of 12% in the basal slice, 14% in the mid-ventricular slice, and 16% in the apical slice of the heart. The trajectory of the RVFW was characterized by a wave of motion toward the septum and outflow tract. The data provided in this study provide a better understanding of normal RV kinematics and can serve as a comparison for disease states. © 1998 Biomedical Engineering Society.
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Noninvasive Delineation of Normal Right Ventricular Contractile Motion With Magnetic Resonance Imaging Myocardial Tagging

This study reports on a multiyear effort to create and evaluate cognitive-based curricular materials for secondary school science classrooms. A team of secondary teachers, educational researchers, and academic biomedical engineers developed a series of curriculum units that are based in biomedical engineering for secondary level students in physics and advanced biology classes. These units made use of an instructional design based upon recent cognitive science research called the Legacy Cycle. Over a 3-year period, comparison of student knowledge on written questions related to central concepts in physics and/or biology generally favored students who had worked with the experimental materials over students in control classrooms. In addition, experimental students were better able to solve applications type problems, as well as unit-specific near transfer problems.

Biomedical Engineering and Cognitive Science as the Basis for Secondary Science Curriculum Development: A Three Year Study

This chapter describes the implementation and assessment of a high school-level bioengineering curriculum unit in urban, suburban, and rural settings.

Stacy S. Klein

Papers

Advancing Engineering Education in P-12 Classrooms

A Research Synthesis of the Effectiveness, Replicability, and Generality of the VaNTH Challenge-based Instructional Modules in Bioengineering

Noninvasive Delineation of Normal Right Ventricular Contractile Motion With Magnetic Resonance Imaging Myocardial Tagging

Biomedical Engineering and Cognitive Science as the Basis for Secondary Science Curriculum Development: A Three Year Study

The effect of a bioengineering unit across high school contexts: An initial investigation in urban, suburban, and rural domains