The purpose of this review is to discuss the development and the state of the art in dynamic testing techniques and dynamic mechanical behaviour of rock materials. The review begins by briefly introducing the history of rock dynamics and explaining the significance of studying these issues. Loading techniques commonly used for both intermediate and high strain rate tests and measurement techniques for dynamic stress and deformation are critically assessed in Sects. 2 and 3. In Sect. 4, methods of dynamic testing and estimation to obtain stress–strain curves at high strain rate are summarized, followed by an in-depth description of various dynamic mechanical properties (e.g. uniaxial and triaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength and fracture toughness) and corresponding fracture behaviour. Some influencing rock structural features (i.e. microstructure, size and shape) and testing conditions (i.e. confining pressure, temperature and water saturation) are considered, ending with some popular semi-empirical rate-dependent equations for the enhancement of dynamic mechanical properties. Section 5 discusses physical mechanisms of strain rate effects. Section 6 describes phenomenological and mechanically based rate-dependent constitutive models established from the knowledge of the stress–strain behaviour and physical mechanisms. Section 7 presents dynamic fracture criteria for quasi-brittle materials. Finally, a brief summary and some aspects of prospective research are presented.

/pdf/a-review-of-dynamic-experimental-techniques-and-mechanical-2kstp2wfg4.pdf

A Review of Dynamic Experimental Techniques and Mechanical Behaviour of Rock Materials

Review of experimental techniques for high rate deformation and shock studies

Flow visualization and characterization of multiphase flows have been the quest of many fluid mechanicians. The process is fairly straight forward only when there is good optical access (i.e., the vessel is not opaque or there are appropriate viewing ports) and the flow is transparent, implying a very low volume fraction of the dispersed phase; however, when optical access is not good or the fluid is opaque, alternative methods must be developed. Several different noninvasive visualization tools have been developed to provide high-quality qualitative and quantitative data of various multiphase flow characteristics, and overviews of these methods have appeared in the literature. X-ray imaging is one family of noninvasive measurement techniques used extensively for product testing and evaluation of static objects with complex structures. X-rays can also be used to visualize and characterize multiphase flows. This paper provides a review of the current status of X-ray flow visualization and details various X-ray flow visualization methods that can provide qualitative and quantitative information about the characteristics of complex multiphase flows. Disciplines Complex Fluids | Engineering | Mechanical Engineering | Thermodynamics Comments This article is from Journal of Fluids Engineering 133 (2011): 074001, doi:10.1115/1.4004367. Posted with permission. This article is available at Iowa State University Digital Repository: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/me_pubs/20 A Review of X-Ray Flow Visualization With Applications to Multiphase Flows

https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=me_pubs

A Review of X-Ray Flow Visualization With Applications to Multiphase Flows

Hopkinson bar experimental techniques have been extensively employed to investigate the mechanical response and fracture behavior of engineering materials under high rate loading. Among these applications, the study of the dynamic fracture behavior of materials at stress-wave loading conditions (corresponding stress-intensity factor rate ∼106 MPam/s) has been an active research area in recent years. Various Hopkinson bar loading configurations and corresponding experimental methods have been proposed to date for measuring dynamic fracture toughness and investigating fracture mechanisms of engineering materials. In this paper, advances in Hopkinson bar loaded dynamic fracture techniques over the past 30 years, focused on dynamic fracture toughness measurement, are presented. Various aspects of Hopkinson bar fracture testing are reviewed, including (a) the analysis of advantages and disadvantages of loading systems and sample configurations; (b) a discussion of operating principles for determining dynamic load and sample displacement in different loading configurations; (c) a comparison of various methods used for determining dynamic fracture parameters (load, displacement, fracture time, and fracture toughness), such as theoretical formula, optical gauges, and strain gauges; and (d) an update of modeling and simulation of loading configurations. Fundamental issues associated with stress-wave loading, such as stress-wave propagation along the elastic bars and in the sample, stress-state equilibrium validation, incident pulse-shaping effect, and the “loss-of-contact” phenomenon are also addressed in this review.

Hopkinson Bar Loaded Fracture Experimental Technique: A Critical Review of Dynamic Fracture Toughness Tests

A statistical approach has been developed for modeling the dynamic response of brittle materials by superimposing the effects of a myriad of microcracks, including opening, shear, growth and coalescence, taking as a starting point the well-established theory of penny-shaped cracks. This paper discusses the general approach, but in particular an application to the sensitivity of explosives and propellants, which often contain brittle constituents. We examine the hypothesis that the intense heating by frictional sliding between the faces of a closed crack during unstable growth can form a hot spot, causing localized melting, ignition, and fast burn of the reactive material adjacent to the crack. Opening and growth of a closed crack due to the pressure of burned gases inside the crack and interactions of adjacent cracks can lead to violent reaction, with detonation as a possible consequence. This approach was used to model a multiple-shock experiment by Mulford et al. [1993. Initiation of preshocked high explosives PBX-9404, PBX-9502, PBX-9501, monitored with in-material magnetic gauging. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Detonation Symposium, pp. 459–467] involving initiation and subsequent quenching of chemical reactions in a slab of PBX 9501 impacted by a two-material flyer plate. We examine the effects of crack orientation and temperature dependence of viscosity of the melt on the response. Numerical results confirm our theoretical finding [Zuo, Q.H., Dienes, J.K., 2005. On the stability of penny-shaped cracks with friction: the five types of brittle behavior. Int. J. Solids Struct. 42, 1309–1326] that crack orientation has a significant effect on brittle behavior, especially under compressive loading where interfacial friction plays an important role. With a reasonable choice of crack orientation and a temperature-dependent viscosity obtained from molecular dynamics calculations, the calculated particle velocities compare well with those measured using embedded velocity gauges.

Impact initiation of explosives and propellants via statistical crack mechanics

The application of high-speed photography and image correlation has allowed dynamic Brazilian tests to be carried out using the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) on PBS9501, an explosive simulant. The essential features of low-rate Brazilian tests are found to occur in the high-rate experiments, with the samples reaching equilibrium quickly and remaining in equilibrium throughout the experiment. The advantage of the approach described here is the ability to make tensile stress/strain measurements in the high-strain rate regime using a compression Hopkinson bar. This allows smaller sample sizes, making testing of expensive or dangerous materials easier, while expanding the capabilities of the compression bar.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/15/9/025/pdf

High-strain rate Brazilian testing of an explosive simulant using speckle metrology

Digital speckle radiography is a measurement technique which is capable of visualizing internal flow fields within an opaque material undergoing a ballistic impact. This recent development has been...

Digital speckle radiography—a new ballistic measurement technique

Measurement of granular flow in a silo using Digital Speckle Radiography

The application of speckle metrology to high strain rate materials characterisation, through the use of appropriate high-speed photography, provides an exciting opportunity for measurements to be performed on materials, and in loading configurations, which were not previously possible. In particular, a full understanding of the mechanical properties of inhomogeneous materials such as composites, geological and biological materials at high strain rates, requires more data than has previously been provided by the split Hopkinson pressure bar, which only gives a measure of average specimen response. Following from a separate paper by Siviour and Grantham describing the application of speckle metrology to the Hopkinson bar, this paper discusses recent experiments in which this application was used to make previously unobtainable measurements of specimen response. Results are presented from experiments performed on a polymer bonded explosive simulant and long polymer rods. These experiments were designed to evaluate the technique in a number of different configurations, as well as providing useful experimental data on these materials. In addition, we revisit the use of speckle metrology in the high strain rate Brazilian test.

Novel measurements of material properties at high rates of strain using speckle metrology

Image correlation techniques developed for speckle metrology have recently been applied to a wide range of ballistics and explosives studies at the Cavendish Laboratory. White-light image correlation applied to quasi-static testing of explosives, at a range of magnifications, is discussed. High-speed ballistic measurements were performed using Digital Speckle Radiography (DSR): a combination of iamge correlation with flash X-rays to study the movement of a plane of X-ray opaque filings within a sample. DSR operates by capturing one image before and a second during the event, allowing the displacements on the plane to be measured to sub-mm accuracy. Varying the delay time and the depth of the seeded plane gives a full three-dimensional flow field in the sample. The use of two X-ray heads stereoscopically increases accuracy by allowing all three components of displacement to be determined. Measurements at velocities ranging from 100 m s-1 to 6 km s-1 have been achieved using this technique.© (2003) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Stephen G. Grantham

Papers

High-strain rate Brazilian testing of an explosive simulant using speckle metrology

Digital speckle radiography—a new ballistic measurement technique

Measurement of granular flow in a silo using Digital Speckle Radiography

Novel measurements of material properties at high rates of strain using speckle metrology

Speckle correlation methods applied to ballistics and explosives