In this review the theory and application of Smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) since its inception in 1977 are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the strengths and weaknesses, the analogy with particle dynamics and the numerous areas where SPH has been successfully applied.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/68/8/R01/pdf

Smoothed particle hydrodynamics

When surrounded by a transparent emission region, black holes are expected to reveal a dark shadow caused by gravitational light bending and photon capture at the event horizon. To image and study this phenomenon, we have assembled the Event Horizon Telescope, a global very long baseline interferometry array observing at a wavelength of 1.3 mm. This allows us to reconstruct event-horizon-scale images of the supermassive black hole candidate in the center of the giant elliptical galaxy M87. We have resolved the central compact radio source as an asymmetric bright emission ring with a diameter of 42 +/- 3 mu as, which is circular and encompasses a central depression in brightness with a flux ratio greater than or similar to 10: 1. The emission ring is recovered using different calibration and imaging schemes, with its diameter and width remaining stable over four different observations carried out in different days. Overall, the observed image is consistent with expectations for the shadow of a Kerr black hole as predicted by general relativity. The asymmetry in brightness in the ring can be explained in terms of relativistic beaming of the emission from a plasma rotating close to the speed of light around a black hole. We compare our images to an extensive library of ray-traced general-relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations of black holes and derive a central mass of M = (6.5 +/- 0.7) x 10(9) M-circle dot. Our radio-wave observations thus provide powerful evidence for the presence of supermassive black holes in centers of galaxies and as the central engines of active galactic nuclei. They also present a new tool to explore gravity in its most extreme limit and on a mass scale that was so far not accessible.

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First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole

We review current understanding of star formation, outlining an overall theoretical framework and the observations that motivate it. A conception of star formation has emerged in which turbulence plays a dual role, both creating overdensities to initiate gravitational contraction or collapse, and countering the effects of gravity in these overdense regions. The key dynamical processes involved in star formation—turbulence, magnetic fields, and self-gravity— are highly nonlinear and multidimensional. Physical arguments are used to identify and explain the features and scalings involved in star formation, and results from numerical simulations are used to quantify these effects. We divide star formation into large-scale and small-scale regimes and review each in turn. Large scales range from galaxies to giant molecular clouds (GMCs) and their substructures. Important problems include how GMCs form and evolve, what determines the star formation rate (SFR), and what determines the initial mass function (IMF). Small scales range from dense cores to the protostellar systems they beget. We discuss formation of both low- and high-mass stars, including ongoing accretion. The development of winds and outflows is increasingly well understood, as are the mechanisms governing angular momentum transport in disks. Although outstanding questions remain, the framework is now in place to build a comprehensive theory of star formation that will be tested by the next generation of telescopes.

/pdf/theory-of-star-formation-sol2jzngnw.pdf

Theory of Star Formation

At about 1000 days after the launch of Gaia we present the first Gaia data release, Gaia DR1, consisting of astrometry and photometry for over 1 billion sources brighter than magnitude 20.7. We summarize Gaia DR1 and provide illustrations of the scientific quality of the data, followed by a discussion of the limitations due to the preliminary nature of this release. Gaia DR1 consists of: a primary astrometric data set which contains the positions, parallaxes, and mean proper motions for about 2 million of the brightest stars in common with the Hipparcos and Tycho-2 catalogues and a secondary astrometric data set containing the positions for an additional 1.1 billion sources. The second component is the photometric data set,consisting of mean G-band magnitudes for all sources. The G-band light curves and the characteristics of ~3000 Cepheid and RR Lyrae stars, observed at high cadence around the south ecliptic pole, form the third component. For the primary astrometric data set the typical uncertainty is about 0.3 mas for the positions and parallaxes, and about 1 mas/yr for the proper motions. A systematic component of ~0.3 mas should be added to the parallax uncertainties. For the subset of ~94000 Hipparcos stars in the primary data set, the proper motions are much more precise at about 0.06 mas/yr. For the secondary astrometric data set, the typical uncertainty of the positions is ~10 mas. The median uncertainties on the mean G-band magnitudes range from the mmag level to ~0.03 mag over the magnitude range 5 to 20.7. Gaia DR1 represents a major advance in the mapping of the heavens and the availability of basic stellar data that underpin observational astrophysics. Nevertheless, the very preliminary nature of this first Gaia data release does lead to a number of important limitations to the data quality which should be carefully considered before drawing conclusions from the data.

/pdf/gaia-data-release-1-summary-of-the-astrometric-photometric-2co37amcsl.pdf

Gaia Data Release 1. Summary of the astrometric, photometric, and survey properties

Context. At about 1000 days after the launch of Gaia we present the first Gaia data release, Gaia DR1, consisting of astrometry and photometry for over 1 billion sources brighter than magnitude 20.7. Aims: A summary of Gaia DR1 is presented along with illustrations of the scientific quality of the data, followed by a discussion of the limitations due to the preliminary nature of this release. Methods: The raw data collected by Gaia during the first 14 months of the mission have been processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC) and turned into an astrometric and photometric catalogue. Results: Gaia DR1 consists of three components: a primary astrometric data set which contains the positions, parallaxes, and mean proper motions for about 2 million of the brightest stars in common with the Hipparcos and Tycho-2 catalogues - a realisation of the Tycho-Gaia Astrometric Solution (TGAS) - and a secondary astrometric data set containing the positions for an additional 1.1 billion sources. The second component is the photometric data set, consisting of mean G-band magnitudes for all sources. The G-band light curves and the characteristics of 3000 Cepheid and RR Lyrae stars, observed at high cadence around the south ecliptic pole, form the third component. For the primary astrometric data set the typical uncertainty is about 0.3 mas for the positions and parallaxes, and about 1 mas yr-1 for the proper motions. A systematic component of 0.3 mas should be added to the parallax uncertainties. For the subset of 94 000 Hipparcos stars in the primary data set, the proper motions are much more precise at about 0.06 mas yr-1. For the secondary astrometric data set, the typical uncertainty of the positions is 10 mas. The median uncertainties on the mean G-band magnitudes range from the mmag level to0.03 mag over the magnitude range 5 to 20.7. Conclusions: Gaia DR1 is an important milestone ahead of the next Gaia data release, which will feature five-parameter astrometry for all sources. Extensive validation shows that Gaia DR1 represents a major advance in the mapping of the heavens and the availability of basic stellar data that underpin observational astrophysics. Nevertheless, the very preliminary nature of this first Gaia data release does lead to a number of important limitations to the data quality which should be carefully considered before drawing conclusions from the data.

/pdf/gaia-data-release-1-summary-of-the-astrometric-photometric-3vnhozldyc.pdf

Gaia Data Release 1 Summary of the astrometric, photometric, and survey properties

We investigate the gravitational interaction of a generally eccentric binary star system with circumbinary and circumstellar gaseous disks. The disks are assumed to be coplanar with the binary, geometrically thin, and primarily governed by gas pressure and (turbulent) viscosity but not self-gravity. Both ordinary and eccentric Lindblad resonances are primarily responsible for truncating the disks in binaries with arbitrary eccentricity and nonextreme mass ratio. Starting from a smooth disk configuration, after the gravitational field of the binary truncates the disk on the dynamical timescale, a quasi-equilibrium is achieved, in which the resonant and viscous torques balance each other and any changes in the structure of the disk (e.g., due to global viscous evolution) occur slowly, preserving the average size of the gap. We analytically compute the approximate sizes of disks (or disk gaps) as a function of binary mass ratio and eccentricity in this quasi-equilibrium. Comparing the gap sizes with results of direct simulations using the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), we obtain a good agreement. As a by-product of the computations, we verify that standard SPH codes can adequately represent the dynamics of disks with moderate viscosity, Reynolds number R approximately 10(exp 3). For typical viscous disk parameters, and with a denoting the binary semimajor axis, the inner edge location of a circumbinary disk varies from 1.8a to 2.6a with binary eccentricity increasing from 0 to 0.25. For eccentricities 0 less than e less than 0.75, the minimum separation between a component star and the circumbinary disk inner edge is greater than a. Our calculations are relevant, among others, to protobinary stars and the recently discovered T Tau pre-main-sequence binaries. We briefly examine the case of a pre-main-sequence spectroscopic binary GW Ori and conclude that circumbinary disk truncation to the size required by one proposed spectroscopic model cannot be due to Linblad resonances, even if the disk is nonviscous.

Dynamics of binary-disk interaction. 1: Resonances and disk gap sizes

We demonstrate through smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations that a circumbinary disk can supply mass to the central binary through gas streams that penetrate the disk gap without closing it. The conditions for an efficient flow typically require the disk thickness-to-radius ratio z/r 0.05, if the turbulent viscosity parameter α is greater than 0.01. This mass flow may be important for both the individual systems and their statistics. It occurs preferentially onto the lower mass object and acts toward equalization of component masses. The less massive component may be more luminous and easier to detect, owing to its larger accretion luminosity. For eccentric binaries, the mass flow is strongly modulated in time, providing diagnostics for both the disk and the binary. In the protostellar disks, the flow could be detected as shock emission phased with the binary orbit, resulting from stream impact with the circumstellar disks and/or the young stars. In the (super)massive black hole binaries in nuclei of galaxies, the flow may result from the surrounding interstellar medium and produce nearly periodic emission, as observed in quasar OJ 287. For star-planet-disk systems, our results show that the opening of a gap around a planet is not always sufficient for the termination of its growth. This suggests that planets supplied by gas streams from protoplanetary disks may outgrow Jupiter to become "superplanets" with properties heretofore reserved for stars.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/310200/pdf

Mass Flow through Gaps in Circumbinary Disks

Gas dynamics of semidetached binaries

We analyze the nonlinear, two-dimensional response of a gaseous, viscous protoplanetary disk to the presence of a planet of one Jupiter mass (1 MJ) and greater that orbits a 1 M☉ star by using the ZEUS hydrodynamics code with high resolution near the planet's Roche lobe. The planet is assumed to be in a circular orbit around the central star and is not allowed to migrate. A gap is formed about the orbit of the planet, but there is a nonaxisymmetric flow through the gap and onto the planet. The gap partitions the disk into an inner (outer) disk that extends inside (outside) the planet's orbit. For a 1 MJ planet and typical disk parameters, the accretion through the gap onto the planet is highly efficient. That is, the rate is comparable to the accretion rate toward the central star that would occur in the absence of the planet (at the location of the planet). For typical disk parameters, the mass-doubling timescale is less than 105 yr, considerably shorter than the disk lifetime. Following shocks near the L1 and L2 Lagrangian points, disk material enters the Roche lobe in the form of two gas streams. Shocks occur within the Roche lobe as the gas streams collide, and shocks lead to rapid inflow toward the planet within much of planet's Roche lobe. Shocks also propagate in the inner and outer disks that orbit the star. For higher mass planets (of order 6 MJ), the flow rate onto the planet is considerably reduced, which suggests an upper mass limit to planets in the range of 10 MJ. This rate reduction is related to the fact that the gap width increases relative to the Roche (Hill sphere) radius with increasing planetary mass. The flow in the gap affects planetary migration. For the 1 MJ planet case, mass can penetrate from the outer disk to the inner disk, so that the inner disk is not depleted. The results suggest that most of the mass in gas giant planets is acquired by flows through gaps.

/pdf/disk-accretion-onto-high-mass-planets-4va280qr9k.pdf

Disk Accretion onto High-Mass Planets

Observations and simulations of superhump phenomena in close binary star systems and observations and previous studies of eccentric planetary rings, such as the rings of Uranus, indicate that eccentric instabilities occur in disks and rings. The eccentric stability of a fluid disk or ring in the presence of the tidal field of a comparison object which is in circular orbit is investigated. The disk can have pressure, viscosity, and self-gravity.

Stephen H. Lubow

Papers

Dynamics of binary-disk interaction. 1: Resonances and disk gap sizes

Mass Flow through Gaps in Circumbinary Disks

Gas dynamics of semidetached binaries

Disk Accretion onto High-Mass Planets

A model for tidally driven eccentric instabilities in fluid disks