To date, many important threads of information privacy research have developed, but these threads have not been woven together into a cohesive fabric. This paper provides an interdisciplinary review of privacy-related research in order to enable a more cohesive treatment. With a sample of 320 privacy articles and 128 books and book sections, we classify previous literature in two ways: (1) using an ethics-based nomenclature of normative, purely descriptive, and empirically descriptive, and (2) based on their level of analysis: individual, group, organizational, and societal.

Based upon our analyses via these two classification approaches, we identify three major areas in which previous research contributions reside: the conceptualization of information privacy, the relationship between information privacy and other constructs, and the contextual nature of these relationships.

As we consider these major areas, we draw three overarching conclusions. First, there are many theoretical developments in the body of normative and purely descriptive studies that have not been addressed in empirical research on privacy. Rigorous studies that either trace processes associated with, or test implied assertions from, these value-laden arguments could add great value. Second, some of the levels of analysis have received less attention in certain contexts than have others in the research to date. Future empirical studies-both positivist and interpretive--could profitably be targeted to these under-researched levels of analysis. Third, positivist empirical studies will add the greatest value if they focus on antecedents to privacy concerns and on actual outcomes. In that light, we recommend that researchers be alert to an overarching macro model that we term APCO (Antecedents → Privacy Concerns → Outcomes).

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Information privacy research: an interdisciplinary review

This Review summarizes and draws connections between diverse streams of empirical research on privacy behavior. We use three themes to connect insights from social and behavioral sciences: people's uncertainty about the consequences of privacy-related behaviors and their own preferences over those consequences; the context-dependence of people's concern, or lack thereof, about privacy; and the degree to which privacy concerns are malleable—manipulable by commercial and governmental interests. Organizing our discussion by these themes, we offer observations concerning the role of public policy in the protection of privacy in the information age.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/347/6221/509.full.pdf

Privacy and human behavior in the age of information

Within the emerging context of the digitization of health care, electronic health records (EHRs) constitute a significant technological advance in the way medical information is stored, communicated, and processed by the multiple parties involved in health care delivery. However, in spite of the anticipated value potential of this technology, there is widespread concern that consumer privacy issues may impede its diffusion. In this study, we pose the question: Can individuals be persuaded to change their attitudes and opt-in behavioral intentions toward EHRs, and allow their medical information to be digitized even in the presence of significant privacy concerns? To investigate this question, we integrate an individual's concern for information privacy (CFIP) with the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) to examine attitude change and likelihood of opting-in to an EHR system. We theorize that issue involvement and argument framing interact to influence attitude change, and that concern for information privacy further moderates the effects of these variables. We also propose that likelihood of adoption is driven by concern for information privacy and attitude. We test our predictions using an experiment with 366 subjects where we manipulate the framing of the arguments supporting EHRs. We find that an individual's CFIP interacts with argument framing and issue involvement to affect attitudes toward the use of EHRs. In addition, results suggest that attitude toward EHR use and CFIP directly influence opt-in behavioral intentions. An important finding for both theory and practice is that even when people have high concerns for privacy, their attitudes can be positively altered with appropriate message framing. These results as well as other theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Adoption of electronic health records in the presence of privacy concerns: the elaboration likelihood model and individual persuasion

Location-based services (LBS) use positioning technologies to provide individual users with reachability and accessibility that would otherwise not be available in the conventional commercial realm While LBS confer greater connectivity and personalization on consumers, they also threaten users' information privacy through granular tracking of their preferences, behaviors, and identity To address privacy concerns in the LBS context, this study extends the privacy calculus model to explore the role of information delivery mechanisms (pull and push) in the efficacy of three privacy intervention approaches (compensation, industry self-regulation, and government regulation) in influencing individual privacy decision making The research model was tested using data gathered from 528 respondents through a quasi-experimental survey method Structural equations modeling using partial least squares validated the instrument and the proposed model Results suggest that the effects of the three privacy intervention approaches on an individual's privacy calculus vary based on the type of information delivery mechanism (pull and push) Results suggest that providing financial compensation for push-based LBS is more important than it is for pull-based LBS Moreover, this study shows that privacy advocates and government legislators should not treat all types of LBS as undifferentiated but could instead specifically target certain types of services

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The Role of Push-Pull Technology in Privacy Calculus: The Case of Location-Based Services

Organizational information practices can result in a variety of privacy problems that can increase consumers’ concerns for information privacy. To explore the link between individuals and organizations regarding privacy, we study how institutional privacy assurances such as privacy policies and industry self-regulation can contribute to reducing individual privacy concerns. Drawing on Communication Privacy Management (CPM) theory, we develop a research model suggesting that an individual’s privacy concerns form through a cognitive process involving perceived privacy risk, privacy control, and his or her disposition to value privacy. Furthermore, individuals’ perceptions of institutional privacy assurances -namely, perceived effectiveness of privacy policies and perceived effectiveness of industry privacy self-regulation -are posited to affect the riskcontrol assessment from information disclosure, thus, being an essential component of privacy concerns. We empirically tested the research model through a survey that was administered to 823 users of four different types of websites: 1) electronic commerce sites, 2) social networking sites, 3) financial sites, and 4) healthcare sites. The results provide support for the majority of the hypothesized relationships. The study reported here is novel to the extent that existing empirical research has not explored the link between individuals’ privacy perceptions and institutional privacy assurances. We discuss implications for theory and practice and provide suggestions for future research.

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Information privacy concerns: Linking individual perceptions with institutional privacy assurances

This introduction, to an issue on privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept, discusses what privacy is, by examining definitions and theories of privacy, and what privacy does, by reviewing the benefits of obtaining privacy and the costs of failing to achieve and of losing privacy. It provides a possible bridge between social psychological and social issues approaches to privacy and examines privacy as a social issue for Americans as citizens, health-care recipients, consumers, and employees. It then briefly explores behavioral aspects of privacy, including indicators of privacy's importance and the generally overlooked status of privacy in psychology.

Privacy as a Social Issue and Behavioral Concept

This article reviews the status and contribution of Alan Westin's and Irwin Altman's theories of privacy. It summarizes, compares, contrasts, and critiques their theories of privacy and summarizes the theory and research that have been a consequence of their theories. It discusses the relationship between privacy and secrecy, an issue raised by Westin, and between privacy and the environment, an issue raised by Altman. Finally, the article considers possible contributions of social-psychological, cultural, and social-development factors to a more complete account of privacy.

On the Status and Contribution of Westin's and Altman's Theories of Privacy

This chapter reviews the current most important theories of privacy. The review is addressed to those unfamiliar with theories of privacy. It is my goal to provide those readers with a foundation on which to build. To this end, the chapter summarizes the two best articulated and best supported theories of privacy (Altman 1975; Westin 1967) as well as Petronio’s (2002) communication privacy management (CPM) theory, an important extension of Altman’s theory that is particularly suited for the study of social networking. Additionally, this chapter considers two larger issues about what privacy is: issues in defining privacy and lessons to be learned from Altman’s and Westin’s theories. I begin with the three theories of privacy.

Three Theories of Privacy: An Overview

The worker performing a monitored task and the social processes surrounding the task provide a basis for integrating psychological and sociological research on work performance monitoring and surveillance in call centres. Foci include individual boundaries, compliance and resistance, controlling the effects of monitoring, negotiated order, metacommunication, and social support.

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Electronic monitoring and surveillance in call centres: a framework for investigation

In order to capitalize on the various technical and behavioural skills needed for a project, system development activities frequently are performed by teams. By surveying 239 information systems (IS) professionals, reports how IS managers, project leaders, and system analysts evaluate the importance of six criteria for determining the effectiveness of an IS team project. Results show that there is a significant difference among the IS professionals. IS managers give more weight to the amount of work a team produced, adherence to schedule, and adherence to budget than do project leaders and system analysts. Results indicate that all IS professionals report that they regard the quality of work produced by the team as the most critical criterion.

Stephen T. Margulis

Papers

Privacy as a Social Issue and Behavioral Concept

On the Status and Contribution of Westin's and Altman's Theories of Privacy

Three Theories of Privacy: An Overview

Electronic monitoring and surveillance in call centres: a framework for investigation

IS team projects: IS professionals rate six criteria for assessing effectiveness