The field of power harvesting has experienced significant growth over the past few years due to the ever-increasing desire to produce portable and wireless electronics with extended lifespans. Current portable and wireless devices must be designed to include electrochemical batteries as the power source. The use of batteries can be troublesome due to their limited lifespan, thus necessitating their periodic replacement. In the case of wireless sensors that are to be placed in remote locations, the sensor must be easily accessible or of a disposable nature to allow the device to function over extended periods of time. Energy scavenging devices are designed to capture the ambient energy surrounding the electronics and convert it into usable electrical energy. The concept of power harvesting works towards developing self-powered devices that do not require replaceable power supplies. A number of sources of harvestable ambient energy exist, including waste heat, vibration, electromagnetic waves, wind, flowing water, and solar energy. While each of these sources of energy can be effectively used to power remote sensors, the structural and biological communities have placed an emphasis on scavenging vibrational energy with piezoelectric materials. This article will review recent literature in the field of power harvesting and present the current state of power harvesting in its drive to create completely self-powered devices.

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A review of power harvesting using piezoelectric materials (2003–2006)

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the adoption of emerging sensing technologies for instrumentation within a variety of structural systems. Wireless sensors and sensor networks are emerging as sensing paradigms that the structural engineering field has begun to consider as substitutes for traditional tethered monitoring systems. A benefit of wireless structural monitoring systems is that they are inexpensive to install because extensive wiring is no longer required between sensors and the data acquisition system. Researchers are discovering that wireless sensors are an exciting technology that should not be viewed as simply a substitute for traditional tethered monitoring systems. Rather, wireless sensors can play greater roles in the processing of structural response data; this feature can be utilized to screen data for signs of structural damage. Also, wireless sensors have limitations that require novel system architectures and modes of operation. This paper is intended to serve as a summary review of the collective experience the structural engineering community has gained from the use of wireless sensors and sensor networks for monitoring structural performance and health.

http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jerlynch/papers/SVDReview.pdf

A summary review of wireless sensors and sensor networks for structural health monitoring

The last decade has witnessed significant advances in energy harvesting technologies as a possible alternative to provide a continuous power supply for small, low-power devices in applications, such as wireless sensing, data transmission, actuation, and medical implants. Piezoelectric energy harvesting (PEH) has been a salient topic in the literature and has attracted widespread attention from researchers due to its advantages of simple architecture, high power density, and good scalability. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art of piezoelectric energy harvesting. Various key aspects to improve the overall performance of a PEH device are discussed, including basic fundamentals and configurations, materials and fabrication, performance enhancement mechanisms, applications, and future outlooks.

A comprehensive review on piezoelectric energy harvesting technology: Materials, mechanisms, and applications

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) research has pre-dominantly assumed the use of a portable and limited energy source, viz. batteries, to power sensors. Without energy, a sensor is essentially useless and cannot contribute to the utility of the network as a whole. Consequently, substantial research efforts have been spent on designing energy-efficient networking protocols to maximize the lifetime of WSNs. However, there are emerging WSN applications where sensors are required to operate for much longer durations (like years or even decades) after they are deployed. Examples include in-situ environmental/habitat monitoring and structural health monitoring of critical infrastructures and buildings, where batteries are hard (or impossible) to replace/recharge. Lately, an alternative to powering WSNs is being actively studied, which is to convert the ambient energy from the environment into electricity to power the sensor nodes. While renewable energy technology is not new (e.g., solar and wind) the systems in use are far too large for WSNs. Those small enough for use in wireless sensors are most likely able to provide only enough energy to power sensors sporadically and not continuously. Sensor nodes need to exploit the sporadic availability of energy to quickly sense and transmit the data. This paper surveys related research and discusses the challenges of designing networking protocols for such WSNs powered by ambient energy harvesting.

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Wireless sensor networks powered by ambient energy harvesting (WSN-HEAP) - Survey and challenges

This paper presents a comprehensive model for miniature vibration-powered piezoelectric generators and analyses modes of operation and control of a buck-boost converter for the purpose of tracking the generators optimal working points. The model describes the generator's power dependence with the mechanical acceleration and frequency, and helps in the definition of the load behaviour for power optimization. Electrical behaviour of the input of buck-boost converter in discontinuous current mode turns out to be in perfect agreement with the considered optimization criteria with a very simple, sensorless control. Experimental results show that the converter controlled by a very low consumption circuit effectively maximizes the power flow into a 4.8 V rechargeable battery connected to the converter output. The converter's efficiency is above 84% for input voltages between 1.6 and 5.5 V, and for output powers between 200 muW and 1.5 mW. The presented circuit and control can be used as well for power optimization of electromagnetic energy harvesting devices.

Buck-Boost Converter for Sensorless Power Optimization of Piezoelectric Energy Harvester

The objective of this work was to demonstrate smart wireless sensing nodes capable of operation at extremely low power levels. These systems were designed to be compatible with energy harvesting systems using piezoelectric materials and/or solar cells. The wireless sensing nodes included a microprocessor, on-board memory, sensing means (1000 ohm foil strain gauge), sensor signal conditioning, 2.4 GHz IEEE 802.15.4 radio transceiver, and rechargeable battery. Extremely low power consumption sleep currents combined with periodic, timed wake-up was used to minimize the average power consumption. Furthermore, we deployed pulsed sensor excitation and microprocessor power control of the signal conditioning elements to minimize the sensors’ average contribution to power draw. By sleeping in between samples, we were able to demonstrate extremely low average power consumption. At 10 Hz, current consumption was 300 microamps at 3 VDC (900 microwatts); at 5 Hz: 400 microwatts, at 1 Hz: 90 microwatts. When the RF stage was not used, but data were logged to memory, consumption was further reduced. Piezoelectric strain energy harvesting systems delivered ~2000 microwatts under low level vibration conditions. Output power levels were also measured from two miniature solar cells; which provided a wide range of output power (~100 to 1400 microwatts), depending on the light type & distance from the source. In summary, system power consumption may be reduced by: 1) removing the load from the energy harvesting & storage elements while charging, 2) by using sleep modes in between samples, 3) pulsing excitation to the sensing and signal conditioning elements in between samples, and 4) by recording and/or averaging, rather than frequently transmitting, sensor data.

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Power management for energy harvesting wireless sensors

A structure includes a structure surface and a protective cover. The protective cover includes a circuit having a component, a moisture detector, and a radio frequency transmitter. The component is adhesively connected to the structure surface with an adhesive connection. The moisture detector is positioned to provide information about moisture in the protective cover. The circuit is for providing data derived from the component and from the moisture detector to the radio frequency transmitter for external transmission. The component may be a strain sensor. The moisture detector may be a capacitor. A moisture barrier may also be provided.

Strain gauge with moisture barrier and self-testing circuit

Background: A recent development in non-invasive techniques to predict intracranial pressure (ICP) termed venous ophthalmodynamometry (vODM) has made measurements in absolute units possible. However, there has been little progress to show utility in the clinic or field. One important application would be to predict changes in actual ICP during adaptive responses to physiologic stress such as hypoxia. A causal relationship between raised intracranial pressure and acute mountain sickness (AMS) is suspected. Several MRI studies report that modest physiologic increases in cerebral volume, from swelling, normally accompany subacute ascent to simulated high altitudes. Objectives: 1) Validate and calibrate an advanced, portable vODM instrument on intensive patients with raised intracranial pressure and 2) make pilot, non-invasive ICP estimations of normal subjects at increasing altitudes. Methods: The vODM was calibrated against actual ICP in 12 neurosurgical patients, most affected with acute hydrocephalus and monitored using ventriculostomy/pressure transducers. The operator was blinded to the transducer read-out. A clinical field test was then conducted on a variable data set of 42 volunteer trekkers and climbers scaling Mt. Everest, Nepal. Mean ICPs were estimated at several altitudes on the ascent both across and within subjects. Results: Portable vODM measurements increased directly and linearly with ICP resulting in good predictability (r = 0.85). We also found that estimated ICP increases normally with altitude (10 ± 3 mm Hg; sea level to 20 ± 2 mm Hg; 6553 m) and that AMS symptoms did not correlate with raised ICP. Conclusion: vODM technology has potential to reliably estimate absolute ICP and is portable. Physiologic increases in ICP and mild-mod AMS are separate responses to high altitude, possibly reflecting swelling and vasoactive instability, respectively.

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Ophthalmodynamometry for ICP prediction and pilot test on Mt. Everest

The novel inclined plate 360 degree absolute angle sensor is designed to measure the absolute angle created by a base and a rotating surface. The assembly contains a metal inclined plate positioned above four coils so that coils one and two are at the minimum and maximum distance from the plate respectively, while at the same time, coils three and four are equidistant from the inclined plate. Rotation of the plate around a centerline, changes the distance that all four coils with respect to the inclined plate which, in turn, creates a change of the inductance of the coils. This change in inductance may be measured with alternating current bridge technologies in order to provide a measure of absolute angular position of a rotating surface with respect to the base.

Inclined plate 360 degree absolute angle sensor

The novel sensor assembly is comprised of a threaded housing with pressure relief tracks through the threads that terminate at a hole through the housing and a displacement sensor. In the preferred embodiment, we have included an integral connector, a super-elastic core carrier and a Differential Variable Reluctance Transducer. Other sensor types could be used to construct a pressure equalized displacement sensor as described herein, these may include: capacitive, resistive, Hall effect, eddy current, and differential variable transformer. The sensor is attached to a keyed connector and the entire assembly is potted into the housing. A temperature probe can also be potted with this assembly to allow for multiple tasks t 1 o be performed by this one housing. The housing is threaded on one end to allow for easy mounting. A hole is drilled through the housing just in back of the sensor and two tracks run perpendicular to and slightly deeper than the threads. The tracks connect to the through hole. This configuration allows fluid to freely flow from the front to the back of the sensor and putting it in equilibrium without escaping from the pressurized environment. This embodiment is hermetically sealed, extremely robust and easily mounted.

Steven W. Mundell

Papers

Power management for energy harvesting wireless sensors

Strain gauge with moisture barrier and self-testing circuit

Ophthalmodynamometry for ICP prediction and pilot test on Mt. Everest

Inclined plate 360 degree absolute angle sensor

Miniaturized pressure equalized displacement sensor assembly