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Using Multivariate Statistics

A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.

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A Threat in the Air How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance

Lincoln, Yvonna, and Egon Guba, "Postpositivism and the Naturalist Paradigm," pp. 14-46 in Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.*

Preparing the books to read every day is enjoyable for many people. However, there are still many people who also don't like reading. This is a problem. But, when you can support others to start reading, it will be better. One of the books that can be recommended for new readers is experience and education. This book is not kind of difficult book to read. It can be read and understand by the new readers.

Experience and Education.

Running head: WHY MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION DOES NOT WORK Why Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching

Contents: S.J. Derry, S.P. Lajoie, A Middle Camp for (Un)Intelligent Instructional Computing: An Introduction. Part I:Model Builders. K.R. Koedinger, J.R. Anderson, Reifying Implicit Planning in Geometry: Guidelines for Model-Based Intelligent Tutoring System Design. V.J. Shute, A Comparison of Learning Environments: All That Glitters... M.R. Lepper, M. Woolverton, D.L. Mumme, J-L. Gurtner, Motivational Techniques of Expert Human Tutors: Lessons for the Design of Computer-Based Tutors. S.J. Derry, L.W. Hawkes, Local Cognitive Modeling of Problem-Solving Behavior: An Application of Fuzzy Theory. Part II:Non-Modelers. K. Reusser, Tutoring Systems and Pedagogical Theory: Representational Tools for Understanding, Planning, and Reflection in Problem Solving. G. Salomon, On the Nature of Pedagogic Computer Tools: The Case of the Writing Partner. R. Lehrer, Authors of Knowledge: Patterns of Hypermedia Design. S.D. Teasley, J. Roschelle, Constructing a Joint Problem Space: The Computer as a Tool for Sharing Knowledge. Part III:Bridging Differences in Opposing Camps. S.P. Lajoie, Computer Environments as Cognitive Tools for Enhancing Learning. S. Katz, A. Lesgold, The Role of the Tutor in Computer-Based Collaborative Learning Situations. L. Schauble, K. Raghavan, R. Glaser, The Discovery and Reflection Notation: A Graphical Trace for Supporting Self-Regulation in Computer-Based Laboratories. Part IV:Discussants. S.F. Chipman, Gazing Once More Into the Silicon Chip: Who's Revolutionary Now? A. Lesgold, Information Technology and the Future of Education.

Computers as Cognitive Tools

: Sherlock is a computer-based supported practice environment for a complex troubleshooting job in th Air Force. This chapter describes the training problem for which Sherlock was developed, the principles behind its development, and its implementation. The training problem is severe and representative of a common problem in our high-technology society. People who will fill a position for a brief period (four years or less for many in this Air Force job) carry out a set of routine tasks which are well supported by technology. However, periodically, a breakdown occurs: a novel situation requiring sophisticated problem solving for which little support is available. In many cases, such problems must be referred to an expert, but such expertise is difficult to acquire. Semiautomated, routinized jobs do not afford sufficient opportunities for complex problem-solving skills to develop, so their incumbents lack the skill required to handle novel problems. Sherlock is an environment in which this missing skill can be acquired for a specific troubleshooting job. The job domain. Sherlock was developed to raise the level of F-15 Manual Avionics Test Station Technicians' troubleshooting knowledge. These technicians repair electronic modules that have been removed from F-15 aircraft because of suspected malfunction. In their daily work, they follow detailed written troubleshooting procedures (part of their Technical Orders) and use a test station. The test station is a large (40 ft) system of electronic equipment to which the module being diagnosed can be attached.

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Sherlock: A Coached Practice Environment for an Electronics Troubleshooting Job.

A brief overview overview is provided of how the scaffolding metaphor has been defined in educational contexts. This includes a discussion of what theories guide decision-making regarding what to scaffold as well as considerations as to whom or what does the scaffolding (human teachers, peers and tutors or computer tutors or support tools designed for learning environments). The scaffolding construct intersects instruction and assessment in that instructors assess learners to determine what type or level of scaffold is sufficient to help learners reach their potential. Such assessments are dynamic and ongoing and can occur through dialogue and social interactions with or without the use of technology. Hence scaffolds are provided when and where necessary but they are also removed when evidence of learning exists. This article describes how the contributors to this issue have extended the scaffolding metaphor to open-ended technology based environments. Empirical studies are reviewed with regard to how they extend the scaffolding metaphor in terms of the theories that guide the design of scaffolds, the metrics designed to assess how scaffolding affects learning and in terms of teaching scaffolding techniques to others.

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Susanne P. Lajoie

Papers

Computers as Cognitive Tools

Sherlock: A Coached Practice Environment for an Electronics Troubleshooting Job.

Extending the scaffolding metaphor

Teaching and Learning in Technology-Rich Environments

Apprenticeship training in the workplace: computer-coached practice environment as a new form of apprenticeship