BackgroundFemale athletes participating in high-risk sports suffer anterior cruciate ligament injury at a 4- to 6-fold greater rate than do male athletes.HypothesisPrescreened female athletes with subsequent anterior cruciate ligament injury will demonstrate decreased neuromuscular control and increased valgus joint loading, predicting anterior cruciate ligament injury risk.Study DesignCohort study; Level of evidence, 2.MethodsThere were 205 female athletes in the high-risk sports of soccer, basketball, and volleyball prospectively measured for neuromuscular control using 3-dimensional kinematics (joint angles) and joint loads using kinetics (joint moments) during a jump-landing task. Analysis of variance as well as linear and logistic regression were used to isolate predictors of risk in athletes who subsequently ruptured the anterior cruciate ligament.ResultsNine athletes had a confirmed anterior cruciate ligament rupture; these 9 had significantly different knee posture and loading compared to the 196 ...

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Biomechanical Measures of Neuromuscular Control and Valgus Loading of the Knee Predict Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk in Female Athletes A Prospective Study

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Biomechanics And Motor Control Of Human Movement

Background: The mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament injury in basketball are not well defined.Purpose: To describe the mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament injury in basketball based on videos of injury situations.Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4.Methods: Six international experts performed visual inspection analyses of 39 videos (17 male and 22 female players) of anterior cruciate ligament injury situations from high school, college, and professional basketball games. Two predefined time points were analyzed: initial ground contact and 50 milliseconds later. The analysts were asked to assess the playing situation, player behavior, and joint kinematics.Results: There was contact at the assumed time of injury in 11 of the 39 cases (5 male and 6 female players). Four of these cases were direct blows to the knee, all in men. Eleven of the 22 female cases were collisions, or the player was pushed by an opponent before the time of injury. The estimated time of injury, based on the group...

Mechanisms of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury in Basketball Video Analysis of 39 Cases

https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6520436/pp.pdf

Variable impedance actuators: A review

The mechanism underlying gender disparity in anterior cruciate ligament injury risk is likely multifactorial in nature. Several theories have been proposed to explain the mechanisms underlying the gender difference in anterior cruciate ligament injury rates. These theories include the intrinsic variables of anatomical, hormonal, neuromuscular, and biomechanical differences between genders and extrinsic variables. Identification of both extrinsic and intrinsic risk factors associated with the anterior cruciate ligament injury mechanism may provide direction for targeted prophylactic treatment to high-risk individuals.

Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries in Female Athletes Part 1, Mechanisms and Risk Factors

MCLEAN, S. G., S. W. LIPFERT, and A. J. VAN DEN BOGERT. Effect of Gender and Defensive Opponent on the Biomechanics of Sidestep Cutting. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 1008 –1016, 2004. Purpose: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries often occur in women during cutting maneuvers to evade a defensive player. Gender differences in knee kinematics have been observed, but it is not known to what extent these are linked to abnormal neuromuscular control elsewhere in the kinetic chain. Responses to defense players, which may be gender-dependent, have not been included in previous studies. This study determined the effects of gender and defense player on entire lower extremity biomechanics during sidestepping. Methods: Eight male and eight female subjects performed sidestep cuts with and without a static defensive opponent while 3D motion and ground reaction force data were recorded. Peak values of eight selected motion and force variables were, as well as their between-trial variabilities, submitted to a two-way (defense gender) ANOVA. A Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of 0.003 denoted statistical significance. Results: Females had less hip and knee flexion, hip and knee internal rotation, and hip abduction. Females had higher knee valgus and foot pronation angles, and increased variability in knee valgus and internal rotation. Increased medial ground reaction forces and flexion and abduction in the hip and knee occurred with the defensive player for both genders. Conclusions: A simulated defense player causes increased lower limb movements and forces, and should be a useful addition to laboratory protocols for sidestepping. Gender differences in the joint kinematics suggest that increased knee valgus may contribute to ACL injury risk in women, and that the hip and ankle may play an important role in controlling knee valgus during sidestepping. Consideration of the entire lower extremity contributes to an understanding of injury mechanisms and may lead to better training programs for injury prevention. Key Words: ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT, INJURY, LOWER LIMB KINEMATICS, SIMULATED DEFENSE, FEMALES, NEUROMUSCULAR CONTROL

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Effect of gender and defensive opponent on the biomechanics of sidestep cutting

Habitual bipedalism is considered as a major breakthrough in human evolution and is the defining feature of hominins. Upright posture is presumably less stable than quadrupedal posture, but when using external support, for example, toddlers assisted by their parents, postural stability becomes less critical. In this study, we show that humans seem to mimic such external support by creating a virtual pivot point (VPP) above their centre of mass. A highly reduced conceptual walking model based on this assumption reveals that such virtual support is sufficient for achieving and maintaining postural stability. The VPP is experimentally observed in walking humans and dogs and in running chickens, suggesting that it might be a convenient emergent behaviour of gait mechanics and not an intentional locomotion behaviour. Hence, it is likely that even the first hominis may have already applied the VPP, a mechanism that would have facilitated the development of habitual bipedalism.

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Upright human gait did not provide a major mechanical challenge for our ancestors

Functional gait asymmetry of unilateral transfemoral amputees.

Humans can run within a wide range of speeds without thinking about stabilizing strategies. The leg properties seem to be adjusted automatically without need for sensory feedback. In this work, the dynamics of human running are represented by the planar spring mass model. Within this framework, for higher speeds, running patterns can be stable without control strategies. Here, potential strategies that provide stability over a broader range of running patterns are considered and these theoretical predictions are compared to human running data. Periodic running solutions are identified and analyzed with respect to their stability. The control strategies are assumed as linear adaptations of the leg parameters-leg angle, leg stiffness and leg length-during the swing phase. To evaluate the applied control strategies regarding their influence on landing behavior, two parameters are introduced: the velocity of the foot relative to the ground (ground speed matching) and the foot's angle of approach. The results show that periodic running solutions can be stabilized and that control strategies, which guarantee running stability, are redundant. For any swing leg kinematics (adaptation of the leg angle and the leg length), running stability can be achieved by adapting the leg stiffness in anticipation of the ground contact.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3182/5/2/026006/pdf

Susanne W. Lipfert

Papers

Effect of gender and defensive opponent on the biomechanics of sidestep cutting

Upright human gait did not provide a major mechanical challenge for our ancestors

Functional gait asymmetry of unilateral transfemoral amputees.

Swing leg control in human running.

A model-experiment comparison of system dynamics for human walking and running.