Farming of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) began in Norway in the late 1960s. During the 1980s and 1990s the production spread, mainly to other northwestern European countries and to Chile. In 1980 annual world production was less than 10,000 t and this increased to 850,000 t whole fish produced in 2000. It is projected to approach 2 million t in 2010. The growth rate of the fish in the farms is continuously improving, due to genetic selection, improved diets and feeding and improved management. The improvement in growth ascribed to genetic selection can be as much as 15–20% per generation if the salmon are from a combined family–phenotype selection programme (Gjedrem, 1983). Recent Canadian results have shown that transgenic salmon, which express growth hormone receptor activity in muscle tissues, have a growth rate 2.6–2.9 times that of the control population, mainly because of increased feed intake (Cook et al., 2000a). Selection or transgenic techniques may also influence the composition of the growth, result in improved feed conversion (Thodesen et al., 1999; Cook et al., 2000a) and change the rate of metabolism (Thodesen et al., 1999; Cook et al., 2000b,c). Economical feed conversions in Norwegian salmon farming have changed from more than 2 kg feed dry matter (DM) kg−1 gain in 1980 to approximately 1.15 kg kg−1 at the end of the 1990s. In salmon the biological feed conversion can vary from less than 0.6 to more than 1.3 kg intake kg−1 gain, and the proportion of protein and energy in diet partitioned into gain can vary from 25 to 60%, depending on the formulation of the diet and the size of the fish. Thus, requirement figures must be based on the requirements of the animal, related to growth, nutrient partitioning and the specific physiological processes in which the nutrient is required. Requirements differ throughout the life cycle. This is especially important in salmon, which undergo physiological changes during smoltification and transfer from a life in fresh water to salt water. In addition to developing the ability to maintain the ion balance in the hyperosmotic salt water, the salmon also

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Atlantic Salmon, Salmo Salar

Handbook of North American Birds Edited by Ralph S. Palmer. Vol. 1: Loons through Flamingos. Pp. vii + 567 + 6 plates. (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, 1962.) 105s.

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Birds of North America

Wildlife has existed in urban areas since records began. However, the discipline of urban ecology is relatively new and one that is undergoing rapid growth. All wildlife in urban areas will interact with humans to some degree. With rates of urbanisation increasing globally, there is a pressing need to understand the type and nature of human–wildlife interactions within urban environments, to help manage, mitigate or even promote these interactions. Much research attention has focussed on the core topic of human–wildlife conflict. This inherent bias in the literature is probably driven by the ease with which it can be quantified and assessed. Human–wildlife conflicts in terms of disease transmission, physical attack and property damage are important topics to understand. Equally, the benefits of human–wildlife interactions are becoming increasingly recognised, despite being harder to quantify and generalise. Wildlife may contribute to the provision of ecosystem services in urban areas, and some recent work has shown how interactions with wildlife can provide a range of benefits to health and wellbeing. More research is needed to improve understanding in this area, requiring wildlife biologists to work with other disciplines including economics, public health, sociology, ethics, psychology and planning. There will always be a need to control wildlife populations in certain urban situations to reduce human–wildlife conflict. However, in an increasingly urbanised and resource-constrained world, we need to learn how to manage the risks from wildlife in new ways, and to understand how to maximise the diverse benefits that living with wildlife can bring.

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Human–wildlife interactions in urban areas: a review of conflicts, benefits and opportunities

Increase in food production is the prime-most objective of all countries, as world population is expected to grow to nearly 10 billion by 2050 Based on evidence, world population is increasing by an estimated 97 million per year (Saravi and Shokrzadeh, 2011) The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has in-fact issued a sobering forecast that world food production needs to increase by 70%, in order to keep pace with the demand of growing population However, increase in food production is faced with the ever-growing challenges especially the new area that can be increased for cultivation purposes is very limited (Saravi and Shokrzadeh, 2011) The increasing world population has therefore put a tremen‐ dous amount of pressure on the existing agricultural system so that food needs can be met from the same current resources like land, water etc In the process of increasing crop pro‐ duction, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, fertilizers and soil amendments are now being used in higher quantities than in the past These chemicals have mainly come into the picture since the introduction of synthetic insecticides in 1940, when organochlorine (OCl) insecticides were first used for pest management Before this introduction, most weeds, pests, insects and diseases were controlled using sustainable practices such as cultural, mechanical, and physical control strategies

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Pesticides: Environmental Impacts and Management Strategies

Wildlife is often responsible for causing extensive damage to personal property, human health and safety concerns, and other nuisance problems because of their feeding, roosting, breeding, and loafing habits. Frightening devices are tools used in integrated wildlife damage management to reduce the impacts of animals, but the effectiveness of such devices is often variable. An animal's visual and auditory capabilities affect how the animal will respond to a stimulus. Frightening devices include pyrotechnics, gas exploders, effigies, lights, lasers, reflective objects, guard animals, bioacoustics, and ultrasonic devices. We examined scientific literature on the use of frightening devices to reduce bird and mammal depredation and compiled results to determine the effectiveness of such devices. When used in an integrated system, frightening devices may be more effective than when used alone. We conclude that the total elimination of damage may be impossible, but frightening devices and/or combinations of devices are useful in reducing wildlife damage. Ultrasonic frightening devices are ineffective in repelling birds and mammals whereas other devices offer some protection. The timely use of a variety of frightening devices can be part of a cost-effective integrated system to reduce wildlife damage to tolerable levels.

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Use of frightening devices in wildlife damage management

Many wildlife species cause extensive damage to a variety of agricultural commodities in California, with estimates of damage in the hundreds of millions annually. Given the limited availability of resources to solve all human-wildlife conflicts, we should focus management efforts on issues that provide the greatest benefit to agricultural commodities in California. This survey provides quantitative data on research needs to better guide future efforts in developing more effective, practical and appropriate methods for managing these species. We found that ground squirrels, pocket gophers, birds, wild pigs, coyotes and voles were the most common agricultural wildlife pest species in California. The damage caused by these species could be quite high, but varied by agricultural commodity. For most species, common forms of damage included loss of crop production and direct death of the plant, although livestock depredation was the greatest concern for coyotes. Control methods used most frequently and those deemed most effective varied by pest species, although greater advancements in control methods were listed as a top research priority for all species. Collectively, the use of toxicants, biocontrol and trapping were the most preferred methods for control, but this varied by species. In general, integrated pest management practices were used to control wildlife pests, with a special preference for those approaches that were efficacious and quick and inexpensive to apply. This information and survey design should be useful in establishing research and management priorities for wildlife pest species in California and other similar regions.

Perceived damage and areas of needed research for wildlife pests of California agriculture

Author(s): Marsh, Rex E.; Erickson, William A.; Salmon, Terrell P. | Abstract: Scarecrows and raptor models are fairly common traditional methods of attempting to frighten unwanted birds. Their effectiveness depends on the conditions under which they are used and the unwanted bird species involved. Best results are obtained from those that are most lifelike and have motion. When coupled with loud startling sounds or recorded distress calls their effectiveness is generally enhanced. Habituation by at least some birds is inevitable so the duration of effectiveness diminishes with time. It is essential to know what works best in a given situation so those methods can be employed to achieve maximum efficiency. An understanding of the limitations of these devices will temper expectations to a realistic level.

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Scarecrows and predator models for frightening birds from specific areas

Wildlife pests of California agriculture: Regional variability and subsequent impacts on management

Communal roosting is common among corvids (Goodwin 1976:32). An apparent urbanization of American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) in the latter half of the twentieth century (e.g., Ryser 1985, Knight et al. 1987) resulted in complaints to public agencies from citizens concerned with potential health hazards from the fecal droppings associated with roosts, and with the fouling of vehicles, buildings, yards, and walkways beneath or near roosts (Gorenzel and Salmon 1992). Noise in the early morning hours from crow vocalizations on roosts or staging areas also disturbed urban residents. Attempts by residents to disperse crows from roosts using simple, available techniques (e.g., shouting, clapping hands or boards, stamping feet, owl decoys) have been unsuccessful (Gorenzel and Salmon 1992). Control techniques traditionally used for birds in rural or agricultural areas (e.g., shooting, trapping, poisoning, or frightening with propane cannons or pyrotechnics) have been unacceptable for use in cities because of adverse public opinion or are not allowed by local ordinances. Biosonics, the use of recorded distress or alarm calls, has not been thoroughly evaluated for controlling crow roosts in North America. Studies in Europe suggested biosonics as a promising control technique for corvids. Distress calls reduced damage by carrion crows (C. corone) in Swiss corn fields (Naef-Daenzer 1983) and dispersed corvids from 5 British airfields in 168 of 181 tests (Brough 1968). Frings et al. (1958) found that broadcast distress calls caused jackdaws (C. monedula) in France to desert 8 roosts for 3-30 days. American crows responded to the playing of taped calls by flying to new night roosts 180 m away from the roosts at which the calls were broadcast (Chamberlain and Cornwell 1971). Our objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of tape-recorded crow calls for controlling individual crow roosts; if effective, they would be an easily applied management technique suitable for urban locations.

Tape-recorded calls disperse american crows from urban roosts

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Terrell P. Salmon

Papers

Perceived damage and areas of needed research for wildlife pests of California agriculture

Scarecrows and predator models for frightening birds from specific areas

Wildlife pests of California agriculture: Regional variability and subsequent impacts on management

Tape-recorded calls disperse american crows from urban roosts

Bird Hazing and Frightening Methods and Techniques (with emphasis on containment ponds)