Ontologies, socio-technical transitions (to sustainability), and the multi-level perspective

When scholars extend their models and hypotheses to encompass additional cases, they commonly need to adapt their analytic categories to fit the new contexts. Giovanni Sartori's work on conceptual "traveling" and conceptual "stretching" provides helpful guidance in addressing this fundamental task of comparative analysis. Yet Sartori's framework draws upon what may be called classical categorization, which views the relation among categories in terms of a taxonomic hierarchy, with each category having clear boundaries and defining properties shared by all members. We examine the challenge to this framework presented by two types of nonclassical categories: family resemblances and radial categories. With such categories, the overly strict application of a classical framework can lead to abandoning to category prematurely or to modifying it inappropriately. We discuss solutions to these problems, using examples of how scholars have adapted their categories in comparative research on democracy and authoritarianism.

Conceptual 'Stretching' Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis

Social scientists who use history as a laboratory for theory development use the work of historians to construct background narratives which can then be coded according to theoretically relevant categories. Yet, virtually no attention has been paid to how these historical monographs are to be chosen. On most periods and themes of interest available accounts differ, not only substantively but also with respect to the implicit theories and conceptual frameworks used to establish salience or produce commonsensical explanations. Unself-conscious use of historical monographs thus easily results in selection bias. Social scientists are bound to be more attracted to and convinced by accounts that accord with the expectations about events contained in the concepts they deploy and the theories they seek to test. Consideration of recent developments in historiographical theory supports the argument that responsible techniques for using historical sources are available, but they require understanding the extent to which patterns within historiography, rather than “History,” must be the direct focus of investigation and explanation. Such an approach has the added advantage of helping to generate historically based studies where observations or cases outnumber variables.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2082612.pdf

History, Historiography, and Political Science: Multiple Historical Records and the Problem of Selection Bias

This article moves from deconstruction to reconstruction in research methodology+ It proposes pragmatism as a way to escape from epistemological dead- lock+ We first show that social scientists are mistaken in their hope to obtain war- ranted knowledge through traditional scientific methods+ We then show that pragmatism has grown from tacit commonsense to an explicit item on the agenda of the inter- national relations discipline+ We suggest that a coherent pragmatic approach consists of two elements: the recognition of knowledge generation as a social and discursive activity, and the orientation of research toward the generation of useful knowledge+ To offer a concrete example of what pragmatic methodology can look like, we pro- pose the research strategy of abduction+ We assess various forms of research design to further elucidate how pragmatic research works in practice+

On Acting and Knowing: How Pragmatism Can Advance International Relations Research and Methodology

John Gerring's exceptional textbook has been thoroughly revised in this second edition. It offers a one-volume introduction to social science methodology relevant to the disciplines of anthropology, economics, history, political science, psychology and sociology. This new edition has been extensively developed with the introduction of new material and a thorough treatment of essential elements such as conceptualization, measurement, causality and research design. It is written for students, long-time practitioners and methodologists and covers both qualitative and quantitative methods. It synthesizes the vast and diverse field of methodology in a way that is clear, concise and comprehensive. While offering a handy overview of the subject, the book is also an argument about how we should conceptualize methodological problems. Thinking about methodology through this lens provides a new framework for understanding work in the social sciences.

Social Science Methodology: A Unified Framework

Max Weber's Theory of Concept Formation: History, Laws, and Ideal Types.

The conception of Verstehen (understanding) has frequently been used in attempts to characterize the methodological and philosophical particularity of social science and history as against natural science. It is argued in this paper that these attempts must not primarily be interpreted as postulating differences in the logic of explanation. Rather, the notion of Verstehen has been employed mainly with the intention to emphasize the practical nature of historical (and social-scientific) knowledge in contrast to the theoretical-contemplative nature of natural-scientific knowledge. This argument is put forward in the context of an analysis of J. G. Droysen's writings on the theory of history. Droysen introduced the idea of Verstehen into the methodological discussion, and in its main intent his reasoning can be treated as representative of the central concerns of the advocates of Verstehen. An outline of his philosophy of history is presented as well as an interpretation of his claims (1) that Verstehen is a special method, and (2) that Verstehen must replace explanation. The paper concludes with a critique of the attempt to contrast the (alleged) practical knowledge of history with the (alleged) purely theoretical knowledge of natural science.

Droysen and the idea of Verstehen.

Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory.@@@The Evolution of Societies.

Weber's interpretive sociology requires the understanding of motives, affectual states, and actions These are understandable because they themselves represent or embody interpretations The Weberian statements are shown to be compatible with a conception of the human individual as a being who interprets subjective experiences in terms of cultural categories and guides his conduct by such interpretations

Max Weber's Interpretive Sociology, the Understanding of Actions and Motives, and a Weberian View of Man

Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory.By Talcott Parsons. New York: Free Press, 1977. 429 pp. $15.95 and The Evolutionof Societies.By Talcott Parsons (edited by Jackson Toby). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977. 269 pp. Cloth, $11.95; paper, $6.95

Thomas Burger

Papers

Max Weber's Theory of Concept Formation: History, Laws, and Ideal Types.

Droysen and the idea of Verstehen.

Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory.@@@The Evolution of Societies.

Max Weber's Interpretive Sociology, the Understanding of Actions and Motives, and a Weberian View of Man

Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory.By Talcott Parsons. New York: Free Press, 1977. 429 pp. $15.95 and The Evolutionof Societies.By Talcott Parsons (edited by Jackson Toby). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977. 269 pp. Cloth, $11.95; paper, $6.95