Preface Chapter 1 The challenge Chapter 2 The nature of the evidence: A synthesis of meta-analyses Chapter 3 The argument: Visible teaching and visible learning Chapter 4: The contributions from the student Chapter 5 The contributions from the home Chapter 6 The contributions from the school Chapter 7 The contributions from the teacher Chapter 8 The contributions from the curricula Chapter 9 The contributions from teaching approaches - I Chapter 10 The contributions from teaching approaches - II Chapter 11: Bringing it all together Appendix A: The 800 meta-analyses Appendix B: The meta-analyses by rank order References

Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement

In the past few years several major reports highlighted the gap between our knowledge of effective treatments and services currently being received by consumers. These reports agree that we know much about interventions that are effective but make little use of them to help achieve important behavioral health outcomes for children families and adults nationally. This theme is repeated in reports by the Surgeon General (United States Department of Health and Human Services 1999; 2001) the National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH] National Advisory Mental Health Council Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Mental Health Intervention Development and Deployment (2001) Bernfeld Farrington & Leschied (2001) Institute of Medicine (2001) and the Presidents New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003). The authors call for applied research to better understand service delivery processes and contextual factors to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of program implementation at local state and national levels. Our understanding of how to develop and evaluate evidence-based intervention programs has been furthered by on-going efforts to research and refine programs and practices to define "evidence bases" and to designate and catalogue "evidence-based programs or practices". However the factors involved in successful implementation of these programs are not as well understood. Current views of implementation are based on the scholarly foundations prepared by Pressman & Wildavskys (1973) study of policy implementation Havelock & Havelocks (1973) classic curriculum for training change agents and Rogers (1983; 1995) series of analyses of factors influencing decisions to choose a given innovation. These foundations were tested and further informed by the experience base generated by pioneering attempts to implement Fairweather Lodges and National Follow-Through education models among others. Petersilia (1990) concluded that "The ideas embodied in innovative social programs are not self-executing." Instead what is needed is an "implementation perspective on innovation--an approach that views postadoption events as crucial and focuses on the actions of those who convert it into practice as the key to success or failure". (excerpt)

Implementation research: a synthesis of the literature.

The failure of better science to readily produce better services has led to increasing interest in the science and practice of implementation. The results of recent reviews of implementation literature and best practices are summarized in this article. Two frameworks related to implementation stages and core implementation components are described and presented as critical links in the science to service chain. It is posited that careful attention to these frameworks can more rapidly advance research and practice in this complex and fascinating area.

Core Implementation Components

This article highlights key findings from the small body of research on mathematics difficulties (MD) relevant to early identification and early intervention. The research demonstrates that (a) for many children, mathematics difficulties are not stable over time; (b) the presence of reading difficulties seems related to slower progress in many aspects of mathematics; (c) almost all students with MD demonstrate problems with accurate and automatic retrieval of basic arithmetic combinations, such as 6 + 3. The following measures appear to be valid and reliable indicators of potential MD in kindergartners: (a) magnitude comparison (i.e., knowing which digit in a pair is larger), (b) sophistication of counting strategies, (c) fluent identification of numbers, and (d) working memory (as evidenced by reverse digit span). These are discussed in terms of the components of number sense. Implications for early intervention strategies are explored.

Early Identification and Interventions for Students With Mathematics Difficulties

The lack of qualified special education teachers threatens the quality of education that students with disabilities receive. Attrition plays a part in the teacher shortage problem, and efforts to improve retention must be informed by an understanding of the factors that contribute to attrition. Specifically, the author provides a thematic analysis of studies investigating factors that contribute to special education teacher attrition and retention. She addresses four major themes: teacher characteristics and personal factors, teacher qualifications, work environments, and teachers' affective reactions to work. Following this thematic review, a critique of definitional, conceptual, and methodological approaches used to study special education attrition is provided, as are priorities for future research.

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Special Education Teacher Retention and Attrition A Critical Analysis of the Research Literature

This article presents findings from a study of factors that lead to special education teacher attrition and retention involving 887 special educators in three large urban school districts. We focus on a path analysis of the relationship between intent to stay in the field and factors such as job satisfaction, commitment to special education teaching, and various aspects of job design. Findings suggest several critical factors to consider in order to increase retention and commitment. A leading negative factor was stress due to job design. Perceived support by principals or other teachers in the school helped alleviate this stress. Another key factor was the sense that special educators were learning on the job, either formally or informally, through collegial networks.

Working in Special Education: Factors that Enhance Special Educators' Intent to Stay:

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects on reading achievement of a low-cost, widely implemented volunteer reading program that has been expanding rapidly throughout the state of Oregon. Eighty-four beginning first grade students at risk of reading difficulties were randomly assigned to experimental and comparison groups. Adult volunteers tutored students in the experimental group in 30-minute sessions two times per week in first and second grade. At the end of grades 1 and 2, students were administered a number of standardized reading measures, including measures of individual word reading, reading comprehension, word comprehension, and reading fluency. Analyses revealed that students in the experimental group made greater growth on a word identification measure than students in the comparison condition; they also made more growth than a group of average-achieving students who were from the same classrooms as the students in the experimental and comparison groups. Students in the experimental group also scored higher than students in the comparison condition on measures of reading fluency and word comprehension at the end of second grade. Differences were not statistically significant on passage comprehension. Findings are discussed in the context of the reading achievement effects that other adult volunteer reading programs have attained. We suggest that in establishing adult volunteer reading programs it is important to consider how to balance the intensity of training reading volunteers to achieve measurable impact on reading achievement with real world realities of the volunteer tutoring experience and goals for the extensiveness of implementation. [Note: This article is reprinted in Reading Education Policy, www.reading.orgpublicationsbbvbooksbk568.]

El proposito del presente estudio fue evaluar los efectos de un programa de tutorias, de bajo costo y muy difundido que se ha expandido rapidamente en el estado de Oregon, sobre los progresos en lectura. Ochenta y cuatro estudiantes de primer grado considerados en riesgo de fracaso en lectura fueron asignados al azar a grupos experimental y de control. Los voluntarios adultos realizaron tutorias con los estudiantes del grupo experimental en sesiones de 30 minutos, dos veces por semana en primero y segundo grado. Al final de primero y segundo grado se administro a los estudiantes un conjunto de medidas estandarizadas de lectura, que incluian lectura de palabras individuales, comprension lectora, comprension de palabras y fluidez en lectura. Los analisis revelaron que los estudiantes del grupo experimental progresaron mas que los estudiantes del grupo de control en una medida de identificacion de palabras; asimismo progresaron mas que un grupo de estudiantes promedio provenientes de las mismas aulas que los estudiantes de los grupos experimental y de control. Los estudiantes del grupo experimental tambien se desempenaron mejor que los del grupo de control en medidas de fluidez en lectura y comprension de palabras al final del segundo grado. En comprension de textos las diferencias no fueron estadisticamente significativas. Los hallazgos se discuten en el contexto de los efectos en el progreso en lectura obtenidos por otros programas de tutores voluntarios adultos. Sugerimos que al establecer programas de tutorias con voluntarios adultos es importante considerar la forma de equilibrar la intensidad del entrenamiento de los voluntarios para obtener un impacto mensurable en el progreso en lectura con la realidad concreta de la experiencia de las tutorias voluntarias y objetivos para hacer extensiva la implementacion.

Der Sinn der laufenden Studie bestand in der Bewertung der Auswirkungen auf die Leseleistungsverbesserungen aufgrund eines kostensparenden, von freiwilligen Helfern weitlaufig angewandten Leseprogrammes, das in schneller Folge uberall im US-Staat Oregon verbreitet wurde. Vierundachtzig Schuleranfanger der ersten Klasse mit Risiken von Leseschwierigkeiten wurden wahllos den Experimentier- und Vergleichsgruppen zugeteilt. Erwachsene als freiwillige Helfer gaben den Schulern in der Experimentiergruppe jeweils fur 30 Minuten zweimal die Woche Nachhilfeunterricht in den ersten und zweiten Klassen. Am Ende der 1. und 2. Klasse wurde den Schulern eine Anzahl standardisierter Lesebewertungsmasnahmen auferlegt, einschlieslich der Bemessung individueller Lesefertigkeiten von Worten, dem Leseverstandnis, dem Wortverstandnis, und der flussigen Lesebeherrschung. Analysen ergaben, das Schuler in der Experimentiergruppe grosere Fortschritte bei der Bemessung der Worterkennung machten als Schuler unter Vergleichskonditionen; auch machten sie mehr Fortschritte als eine Gruppe von Durchschnittsschulern, die aus dem gleichen Klassenraum kamen wie Schuler in den Experimentier-und Vergleichsgruppen. Die Schuler der Experimentiergruppe erzielten auch hohere Noten als Schuler unter den Vergleichsbedingungen bei der Bemessung der Leseflussigkeit und dem Wortverstandnis am Ende der zweiten Klasse. Im Verstandnis von Passagen bzw. Absatzen waren solche Differenzen statistisch nicht signifikant. Die Ergebnisse werden im Zusammenhang von Leseleistungseffekten diskutiert, die andere freiwillige Erwachsenenhelfer mit ihren Leseprogrammen erzielt haben. Wir schlagen vor, das bei der Schaffung von freiwilligen Lesenachhilfeprogrammen durch Erwachsene es wichtig ist zu berucksichtigen, wie die Intensitat der Leseschulung freiwilliger Helfer ausgewogen gestaltet wird, um einen mesbaren Einflus auf die Leseleistung unter wirklichkeitsnahen Bedingungen an Erfahrungen und Zielen von freiwilligen Helfern zur weitgehendsten Verbreitung zu erreichen.

Cette etude avait pour but d'evaluer les effets sur la reussite en lecture d'un programme de lecture de benevoles peu couteux et tres repandu qui s'est repandu rapidement dans l'Etat de l'Oregon. On a reparti au hasard dans des groupes experimental et controle 84 enfants commencant leur premiere annee qui presentaient un risque de difficultes en lecture. Dans le groupe experimental, des benevoles ont ete tuteurs des eleves pendant des sessions de 30 minutes, deux fois par semaine en premiere et deuxieme annee. A la fin de la premiere et de la deuxieme annee, on a administre aux eleves plusieurs tests standardises, comportant des mesures de lecture de mots isoles, de comprehension de lecture, de comprehension de mots, et de lecture courante. Les analyses ont montre que les eleves du groupe experimental ont mieux reussi que ceux du groupe temoin dans l'identification de mots; ils ont aussi mieux reussi que le groupe temoin en lecture courante et comprehension de mots en fin de seconde annee. Les differences en comprehension d'un passage n'ont pas ete significatives. On discute ces resultats dans le contexte des effets sur la reussite en lecture qu'atteignent les autres programmes de volontariat des adultes. On suggere que que pour mettre sur pied des programmes de lecture de benevoles il est important de trouver l'equilibre entre l'intensite de la formation des benevoles permettant d'avoir un impact mesurable sur la reussite en lecture et les realites dans le monde reel de l'experience des tuteurs benevoles ainsi que les objectifs d'extension de l'implantation.

When Less May Be More: A 2‐Year Longitudinal Evaluation of a Volunteer Tutoring Program Requiring Minimal Training

Long-Term Benefits from Direct Instruction.

In a quiet but profound way, the work of Samuel Messick (1980, 1988, 1994) has revolutionized how educational researchers establish claims for the validity of assessment procedures. Messick's framework for understanding validity was initially applied to the use of intelligence or achievement tests for placement of students into special education or remedial programs. We believe that his framework has equally exciting, challenging, and powerful implications for improving instructional practice for children with disabilities. The purpose of this article is to explore these implications in mathematics assessment and instruction in special education. Recently, three state-of-the-art innovations in special education mathematics assessment were described in Exceptional Children (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1994; Gerber, Semmel, & Semmel, 1994; Woodward & Howard, 1994) and the Journal of Special Education Technology (Woodward & Carnine, 1993). All three innovations view assessment as a means to improve mathematics instruction for students with learning disabilities. Yet all three take different paths to achieving this end. In one case, expert systems identify errors and develop hypotheses concerning underlying misconceptions in subtraction (Woodward & Howard, 1994). In a second, student responses are analyzed and problem types generated where additional instruction is required (Fuchs et al., 1994). In the third case, instantaneous prompting and graphical elaboration is provided to prevent errors and to help a student solve a multidigit multiplication problem (Gerber et al., 1994). In this article, we discuss these three innovative projects using Messick's (1988) framework as a tool for understanding what really is entailed in claims made about "the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness" (p. 35) of inferences drawn from assessment data. In analyzing these three approaches, we discuss not only current thinking on assessment, but also changing views on how to improve special education math instruction. Messick argued convincingly that validity comprises not only technical and statistical concerns, but also social and instructional ones. It is incumbent on researchers involved in assessment to do the following: * Explain instructional theory underlying assessment. * Explain in detail expected uses of assessment data by teachers. * Present data on how teachers actually use the assessment procedure. * Demonstrate the consequences--both positive and negative, both intended and unintended--of use on student learning. Whereas commonly used validity indexes (concurrent, predictive, construct) remain interesting and important, they are not sufficient justification for use. They are what Messick calls the first face of validity, or evidential interpretation of the meaning(s) of assessment data; they indicate that the underlying constructs have some theoretical basis (see Figure 1, left column). Validity also entails both persuasive, logical arguments supporting use, (Figure 1, right column), and empirical data demonstrating the consequences of that assessment, i.e., that it does in fact help guide instruction to enhance student learning. A HISTORICAL INTERLUDE For many years, the key to successful reading instruction for students with learning disabilities was believed to lie in an understanding of auditory and visual processing deficits. Kavale (1981) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of extant research and concluded that a significant correlation existed between auditory processing skills and reading abilities. In Messick's terminology, he provided evidence of construct validity to support test interpretation. However, Kavale and Mattson (1983) subsequently found that training in auditory skills did not improve reading ability. In Messick's terminology, no evidence existed to support use. More recently, Adams (I 990) noted that a set of variables, labeled phonemic or phonological awareness, were consistently predictive of subsequent reading performance. …

Thomas Keating

Papers

Working in Special Education: Factors that Enhance Special Educators' Intent to Stay:

When Less May Be More: A 2‐Year Longitudinal Evaluation of a Volunteer Tutoring Program Requiring Minimal Training

Long-Term Benefits from Direct Instruction.

The Burden of Proof: Validity as Improvement of Instructional Practice: