Conventional reviews of research on the efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatments often find considerable variation in outcome among studies and, as a consequence, fail to reach firm conclusions about the overall effectiveness of the interventions in question. In contrast meta-analytic reviews show a strong, dramatic pattern of positive overall effects that cannot readily be explained as artifacts of meta-analytic technique or generalized placebo effects. Moreover, the effects are not so small that they can be dismissed as lacking practical or clinical significance. Although meta-analysis has limitations, there are good reasons to believe that its results are more credible than those of conventional reviews and to conclude that well-developed psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment is generally efficacious.

The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment. Confirmation from meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis was conducted to determine the effectiveness of stress management interventions in occupational settings. Thirty-six experimental studies were included, representing 55 interventions. Total sample size was 2,847. Of the participants, 59% were female, mean age was 35.4, and average length of intervention was 7.4 weeks. The overall weighted effect size (Cohen's d) for all studies was 0.526 (95% confidence interval = 0.364, 0.687), a significant medium to large effect. Interventions were coded as cognitive-behavioral, relaxation, organizational, multimodal, or alternative. Analyses based on these subgroups suggested that intervention type played a moderating role. Cognitive-behavioral programs consistently produced larger effects than other types of interventions, but if additional treatment components were added the effect was reduced. Within the sample of studies, relaxation interventions were most frequently used, and organizational interventions continued to be scarce. Effects were based mainly on psychological outcome variables, as opposed to physiological or organizational measures. The examination of additional moderators such as treatment length, outcome variable, and occupation did not reveal significant variations in effect size by intervention type.

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Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: a meta-analysis

Meaning in life and life satisfaction are both important variables in well-being research. Whereas an appreciable body of work suggests that life satisfaction is fairly stable over long periods of time, little research has investigated the stability of meaning in life ratings. In addition, it is unknown whether these highly correlated variables change independent of each other over time. Eighty-two participants (mean age = 19.3 years, SD 1.4; 76% female; 84% European-American) com- pleted measures of the presence of meaning in life, the search for meaning in life, and life satisfaction an average of 13 months apart (SD = 2.3 months). Moderate stability was found for presence of mean- ing in life, search for meaning in life, and life satisfaction. Multiple regressions demonstrated specificity in predicting change among these measures. Support for validity and reliability of these variables is discussed.

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Stability and specificity of meaning in life and life satisfaction over one year

Plato observed that humans are beings in search of meaning; people automatically coax meaning from their experiences, including the experience of life 
itself. Meaning is the web of connections, understandings, and interpretations 
that help us comprehend our experience and formulate plans directing our 
energies to the achievement of our desired future. Meaning provides us with 
the sense that our lives matter, that they make sense, and that they are more 
than the sum of our seconds, days, and years. Comprehending our experience 
in this way builds the cognitive component of meaning in life. e cognitive component of meaning in life thus refers to the understandings that we 
develop of who we are, what the world is like, and how we t in with and relate 
to the grand scheme of things (Heine, Proulx, & Vohs, 2006; Steger, 2009).

Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of well-being, psychopathology, and spirituality.

Background Searching for a coherent meaning in life has long been proposed to be a protective factor in adolescent development. Purpose The present study aimed to examine meaning in life as a protective factor in a largely unstudied population: Romanian adolescents. Additionally, we sought to provide a novel, multidimensional assessment of several healthrelated variables (substance abuse, health risk behaviors, psychological health). Potential gender differences were explored regarding the role of life meaning in adolescent health. Method Data were collected in 2006 from students enrolled in the secondary schools of the Middle Transylvanian Region, Romania (n=1,977). Self-administered questionnaires were used as a method of data collection including items of life meaning and psychological health. Results Meaning in life played a protective role with regard to health risk behaviors except smoking and binge drinking. Among males, meaning in life was found to be correlated only to illicit drug and sedative use, whereas among females, meaning in life was associated with binge drinking, unsafe sex, and lack of exercise and diet control. Psychological health was strongly related to meaning in life.

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Meaning in life: Is it a protective factor for adolescents' psychological health?

The relation between meaning in life and the occurrence of drug abuse: A retrospective study.

Stress treatment: Two aspirins, fluids, and one more workshop.

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Generational Shift and Drug Abuse in Older Americans

Consumer-Directed Health Plans (CDHPs) are proposed as an option to control healthcare costs. No research has addressed their applicability in rural settings. This study analyzes three years (2003–2005) of healthcare expenditure and utilization incurred by two employers and a national carrier providing data from a rural state, Kentucky. The study included two measures of expenditures (health care and prescription drugs) and three measures of utilization (physician visits, hospital admissions, and hospital inpatient days). In general, the CDHP successfully controlled the growth of medical costs. These findings suggest that CDHPs may be a viable alternative benefit structure for rural employers.

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Thomas Nicholson

Papers

The relation between meaning in life and the occurrence of drug abuse: A retrospective study.

Stress treatment: Two aspirins, fluids, and one more workshop.

Generational Shift and Drug Abuse in Older Americans

Consumer-Directed Health Insurance vs. Managed Care: Analysis of Health Care Utilization and Expenditure Incurred by Employees in a Rural Area