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Modern Applied Statistics With S

Threats to seabirds: A global assessment

Bycatch in longline fisheries is believed to govern the adverse conservation status of many seabird species, but no comprehensive global assessment has been undertaken. We reviewed the extent of seabird bycatch in all longline fisheries for which data are available. Despite the many inadequacies and assumptions contained therein, we estimated that at least 160 000 (and potentially in excess of 320 000) seabirds are killed annually. Most frequently caught are albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, with current levels of mortality liable to be unsustainable for some species and popula- tions. Where realistic comparisons can be made, with data from the 1990s, there is evidence of sub- stantially reduced bycatch in some key fisheries. Reductions stem from decreased fishing effort (especially in illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Southern Ocean), and greater and more effective use of technical mitigation measures, notably in demersal fisheries. However, bycatch problems in other fisheries have also emerged. Current concerns include those with previously unidentified bycatch problems (e.g. Spanish Gran Sol demersal fleet) and those where bycatch was identified, but where persistent data gaps prevented adequate assessments of the scale of the impact (e.g. Nordic demersal fisheries). Future assessments will only achieve greater precision when mini- mum standards of data collection, reporting and analysis are implemented by longline fishing fleets and the relevant regional fishery management organisations. Those fisheries in which bycatch has been substantially reduced demonstrate that the problem of seabird bycatch could be reduced to negligible proportions by enforced implementation of appropriate best-practice mitigation devices and techniques.

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Global seabird bycatch in longline fisheries

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ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS ACROSS THE WORLD . Michael Brooke. 2004. Oxford: Oxford University Press. xviii + 499 p, illustrated, hardcover. ISBN 0-19-850125-0. £85.00

More than 50% of the world’s total marine catch (approximately 81 million tonnes) is harvested using towed fishing gears (i.e. Danish seines, dredges and otter and beam trawls). As for all methods, the total fishing mortality of these gears comprises the reported (landed) and unreported catch and other unaccounted, collateral deaths due to (i) avoiding, (ii) escaping, (iii) dropping out of the gear during fishing, (iv) discarding from the vessel, (v) ghost fishing of lost gear, (vi) habitat destruction or subsequent (vii) predation and (viii) infection from any of the above. The inherent poor selectivity of many towed gears, combined with their broad spatial deployment, means that there is considerable potential for cumulative effects of (i)‐(viii) listed above on total fishing mortality, and subsequent wide-scale negative impacts on stocks of important species. In this paper, we develop a strategy for minimizing this unwanted exploitation by reviewing all the primary literature studies that have estimated collateral, unaccounted fishing mortalities and identifying the key causal factors. We located more than 80 relevant published studies (between 1890 and early 2006) that quantified the mortalities of more than 120 species of escaping (26 papers) or discarded (62 papers) bivalves, cephalopods, crustaceans, echinoderms, elasmobranches, reptiles, teleosts and miscellaneous organisms. Seven of these studies also included the estimates of mortalities caused by dropping out of gears, predation and infection [(iii), (vii) and (viii) listed above]. Owing to several key biological (physiology, size and catch volume and composition), environmental (temperature, hypoxia, sea state and availability of light) and technical (gear design, tow duration and speed) factors, catch-and-escape or catch-and-discarding mechanisms were identified to evoke cumulative negative effects on the health of most organisms. We propose that because the mortalities of discards typically are much greater than escapees, the primary focus of efforts to mitigate unaccounted fishing mortalities should concentrate on the rapid, passive, size and species selection of nontarget organisms from the anterior sections of towed gears during fishing. Once maximum selection has been achieved and demonstrated to cause few mortalities, efforts should be made to modify other operational and/or post-capture handling procedures that address the key causal factors listed above.

Estimating Collateral Mortality from Towed Fishing Gear

Seabird mortality on factory trawlers in the Falkland Islands and beyond

Experimental trials were conducted onboard a stern trawler to identify the relative efficacy of three emerging mitigation measures (tori lines, warp scarer and Brady baffler) designed to reduce seabird mortality caused by warp cable strikes. The use of mitigation measures was clearly shown to substantially reduce seabird mortalities from collisions between seabirds and warp cables. Based on an established significant relationship between contact rate and seabird mortality, when using contact rate as an index of mortality there was a clear performance hierarchy of the three measures. Tori lines and the warp scarer were significantly more effective at reducing contacts than the Brady Baffler, whilst tori lines represent a smaller, but still significant, improvement on the warp scarer. While further testing would be required under local environmental and operational conditions, our findings are likely to have application for many trawl fisheries around the world.

Mitigation of seabird mortality on factory trawlers: trials of three devices to reduce warp cable strikes

The population of flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) breeding on Lord Howe Island was shown to be declining
from the 1970’s to the early 2000’s. This was attributed to destruction of breeding habitat and fisheries mortality in the
Australian Eastern Tuna and Billfish Fishery. Recent evidence suggests these impacts have ceased; presumably leading to
population recovery. We used Bayesian statistical methods to combine data from the literature with more recent, but
incomplete, field data to estimate population parameters and trends. This approach easily accounts for sources of variation
and uncertainty while formally incorporating data and variation from different sources into the estimate. There is a 70%
probability that the flesh-footed shearwater population on Lord Howe continued to decline during 2003–2009, and
a number of possible reasons for this are suggested. During the breeding season, road-based mortality of adults on Lord
Howe Island is likely to result in reduced adult survival and there is evidence that breeding success is negatively impacted
by marine debris. Interactions with fisheries on flesh-footed shearwater winter grounds should be further investigated.

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Re-examining mortality sources and population trends in a declining seabird: using Bayesian methods to incorporate existing information and new data.

Seabird mortality in longline fishing has been implicated in the decline of many populations around the world. The population of the Black-browed Albatross breeding in the Falkland Islands has been estimated to have declined by 87 500 pairs between 1995 and 2000. The observed mortality in the Patagonian Toothfish longline fishery in Falkland Islands waters in 2001–02 was 29 seabirds, including 27 Black-browed Albatrosses, giving an estimated total mortality of 134 (95% confidence limits 80–188) birds, including 126 (75–177) Black-browed Albatrosses. This suggests that this fishery in Falkland Islands waters is currently not contributing substantially to observed declines in the local populations. Nevertheless, mortality could be further reduced by night setting and an increase in line weighting, especially during the breeding season of the Black-browed Albatross.

Seabird mortality associated with Patagonian Toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) longliners in Falkland Islands waters

The rate of foraging attempts by black–browed albatross on baited hooks during Spanish-system (demersal) longline-setting operations, and a range of environmental and operational variables were used to investigate the relationship between their foraging behaviour and their mortality level. Logistic regression highlighted that a complex range of environmental and operational variables and black-browed albatross abundance combined to determine their mortality level. Our results suggest that, examined over a relatively short time period with minimal environmental variation, the rate of black-browed albatross foraging attempts during line-setting significantly affects their level of mortality. However, as a range of variables influence mortality, until targeted experimental studies are conducted, we suggest that caution should be exercised when using the rate of black-browed albatross foraging attempts as an index of their mortality.

Tim Reid

Papers

Seabird mortality on factory trawlers in the Falkland Islands and beyond

Mitigation of seabird mortality on factory trawlers: trials of three devices to reduce warp cable strikes

Re-examining mortality sources and population trends in a declining seabird: using Bayesian methods to incorporate existing information and new data.

Seabird mortality associated with Patagonian Toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) longliners in Falkland Islands waters

Longliners, black-browed albatross mortality and bait scavenging in Falkland Island waters: what is the relationship?