The number and diversity of known CRISPR-Cas systems have substantially increased in recent years. Here, we provide an updated evolutionary classification of CRISPR-Cas systems and cas genes, with an emphasis on the major developments that have occurred since the publication of the latest classification, in 2015. The new classification includes 2 classes, 6 types and 33 subtypes, compared with 5 types and 16 subtypes in 2015. A key development is the ongoing discovery of multiple, novel class 2 CRISPR-Cas systems, which now include 3 types and 17 subtypes. A second major novelty is the discovery of numerous derived CRISPR-Cas variants, often associated with mobile genetic elements that lack the nucleases required for interference. Some of these variants are involved in RNA-guided transposition, whereas others are predicted to perform functions distinct from adaptive immunity that remain to be characterized experimentally. The third highlight is the discovery of numerous families of ancillary CRISPR-linked genes, often implicated in signal transduction. Together, these findings substantially clarify the functional diversity and evolutionary history of CRISPR-Cas.

/pdf/evolutionary-classification-of-crispr-cas-systems-a-burst-of-8tq4dlni6o.pdf

Evolutionary classification of CRISPR-Cas systems: a burst of class 2 and derived variants.

The development of new CRISPR-Cas genome editing tools continues to drive major advances in the life sciences. Four classes of CRISPR-Cas-derived genome editing agents-nucleases, base editors, transposases/recombinases and prime editors-are currently available for modifying genomes in experimental systems. Some of these agents have also moved rapidly into the clinic. Each tool comes with its own capabilities and limitations, and major efforts have broadened their editing capabilities, expanded their targeting scope and improved editing specificity. We analyze key considerations when choosing genome editing agents and identify opportunities for future improvements and applications in basic research and therapeutics.

Genome editing with CRISPR–Cas nucleases, base editors, transposases and prime editors

Recent advances in the development of genome editing technologies based on programmable nucleases have substantially improved our ability to make precise changes in the genomes of eukaryotic cells. Genome editing is already broadening our ability to elucidate the contribution of genetics to disease by facilitating the creation of more accurate cellular and animal models of pathological processes. A particularly tantalizing application of programmable nucleases is the potential to directly correct genetic mutations in affected tissues and cells to treat diseases that are refractory to traditional therapies. Here we discuss current progress toward developing programmable nuclease–based therapies as well as future prospects and challenges.

Therapeutic genome editing: prospects and challenges

A fundamental goal of developmental and stem cell biology is to map the developmental history (ontogeny) of differentiated cell types. Recent advances in high-throughput single-cell sequencing technologies have enabled the construction of comprehensive transcriptional atlases of adult tissues and of developing embryos from measurements of up to millions of individual cells. Parallel advances in sequencing-based lineage-tracing methods now facilitate the mapping of clonal relationships onto these landscapes and enable detailed comparisons between molecular and mitotic histories. Here we review recent progress and challenges, as well as the opportunities that emerge when these two complementary representations of cellular history are synthesized into integrated models of cell differentiation.

Lineage tracing meets single-cell omics: opportunities and challenges.

Genome engineering for crop improvement and future agriculture

Conventional CRISPR-Cas systems maintain genomic integrity by leveraging guide RNAs for the nuclease-dependent degradation of mobile genetic elements, including plasmids and viruses. Here we describe a notable inversion of this paradigm, in which bacterial Tn7-like transposons have co-opted nuclease-deficient CRISPR-Cas systems to catalyse RNA-guided integration of mobile genetic elements into the genome. Programmable transposition of Vibrio cholerae Tn6677 in Escherichia coli requires CRISPR- and transposon-associated molecular machineries, including a co-complex between the DNA-targeting complex Cascade and the transposition protein TniQ. Integration of donor DNA occurs in one of two possible orientations at a fixed distance downstream of target DNA sequences, and can accommodate variable length genetic payloads. Deep-sequencing experiments reveal highly specific, genome-wide DNA insertion across dozens of unique target sites. This discovery of a fully programmable, RNA-guided integrase lays the foundation for genomic manipulations that obviate the requirements for double-strand breaks and homology-directed repair.

Transposon-encoded CRISPR–Cas systems direct RNA-guided DNA integration

Bacteria use adaptive immune systems encoded by CRISPR and Cas genes to maintain genomic integrity when challenged by pathogens and mobile genetic elements1–3. Type I CRISPR–Cas systems typically target foreign DNA for degradation via joint action of the ribonucleoprotein complex Cascade and the helicase–nuclease Cas34,5, but nuclease-deficient type I systems lacking Cas3 have been repurposed for RNA-guided transposition by bacterial Tn7-like transposons6,7. How CRISPR- and transposon-associated machineries collaborate during DNA targeting and insertion remains unknown. Here we describe structures of a TniQ–Cascade complex encoded by the Vibrio cholerae Tn6677 transposon using cryo-electron microscopy, revealing the mechanistic basis of this functional coupling. The cryo-electron microscopy maps enabled de novo modelling and refinement of the transposition protein TniQ, which binds to the Cascade complex as a dimer in a head-to-tail configuration, at the interface formed by Cas6 and Cas7 near the 3′ end of the CRISPR RNA (crRNA). The natural Cas8–Cas5 fusion protein binds the 5′ crRNA handle and contacts the TniQ dimer via a flexible insertion domain. A target DNA-bound structure reveals critical interactions necessary for protospacer-adjacent motif recognition and R-loop formation. This work lays the foundation for a structural understanding of how DNA targeting by TniQ–Cascade leads to downstream recruitment of additional transposase proteins, and will guide protein engineering efforts to leverage this system for programmable DNA insertions in genome-engineering applications. Cryo-electron microscopy structures of the TniQ–Cascade complex encoded by the Vibrio cholerae Tn6677 transposon reveal the mechanistic basis of the functional association of CRISPR- and transposon-associated machineries.

/pdf/structural-basis-of-dna-targeting-by-a-transposon-encoded-3m7ycc132p.pdf

Structural basis of DNA targeting by a transposon-encoded CRISPR-Cas system

Bacteria have evolved adaptive immune systems encoded by Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and the CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes to maintain genomic integrity in the face of relentless assault from pathogens and mobile genetic elements [1–3]. Type I CRISPR-Cas systems canonically target foreign DNA for degradation via the joint action of the ribonucleoprotein complex Cascade and the helicase-nuclease Cas3 [4,5] but nuclease-deficient Type I systems lacking Cas3 have been repurposed for RNA-guided transposition by bacterial Tn7-like transposons [6,7]. How CRISPR- and transposon-associated machineries collaborate during DNA targeting and insertion has remained elusive. Here we determined structures of a novel TniQ-Cascade complex encoded by the Vibrio cholerae Tn6677 transposon using single particle electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM), revealing the mechanistic basis of this functional coupling. The quality of the cryo-EM maps allowed for de novo modeling and refinement of the transposition protein TniQ, which binds to the Cascade complex as a dimer in a head-to-tail configuration, at the interface formed by Cas6 and Cas7 near the 3’ end of the crRNA. The natural Cas8-Cas5 fusion protein binds the 5’ crRNA handle and contacts the TniQ dimer via a flexible insertion domain. A target DNA-bound structure reveals critical interactions necessary for protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) recognition and R-loop formation. The present work lays the foundation for a structural understanding of how DNA targeting by TniQ-Cascade leads to downstream recruitment of additional transposon-associated proteins, and will guide protein engineering efforts to leverage this system for programmable DNA insertions in genome engineering applications.

/pdf/structural-basis-of-dna-targeting-by-a-transposon-encoded-5fzrtoykhb.pdf

Targeted DNA integration in human cells without double-strand breaks using CRISPR-associated transposases

Traditional genome-editing reagents such as CRISPR-Cas9 achieve targeted DNA modification by introducing double-strand breaks (DSBs), thereby stimulating localized DNA repair by endogenous cellular repair factors. While highly effective at generating heterogenous knockout mutations, this approach suffers from undesirable byproducts and an inability to control product purity. Here we develop a system in human cells for programmable, DSB-free DNA integration using Type I CRISPR-associated transposons (CASTs). To adapt our previously described CAST systems, we optimized DNA targeting by the QCascade complex through a comprehensive assessment of protein design, and we developed potent transcriptional activators by exploiting the multi-valent recruitment of the AAA+ ATPase, TnsC, to genomic sites targeted by QCascade. After initial detection of plasmid-based transposition, we screened 15 homologous CAST systems from a wide range of bacterial hosts, identified a CAST homolog from Pseudoalteromonas that exhibited improved activity, and increased integration efficiencies through parameter optimization. We further discovered that bacterial ClpX enhances genomic integration by multiple orders of magnitude, and we propose that this critical accessory factor functions to drive active disassembly of the post-transposition CAST complex, akin to its demonstrated role in Mu transposition. Our work highlights the ability to functionally reconstitute complex, multi-component machineries in human cells, and establishes a strong foundation to realize the full potential of CRISPR-associated transposons for human genome engineering.

/pdf/targeted-dna-integration-in-human-cells-without-double-2dbltccm.pdf

Tyler S. Halpin-Healy

Papers

Transposon-encoded CRISPR–Cas systems direct RNA-guided DNA integration

Structural basis of DNA targeting by a transposon-encoded CRISPR-Cas system

Structural basis of DNA targeting by a transposon-encoded CRISPR-Cas system

Targeted DNA integration in human cells without double-strand breaks using CRISPR-associated transposases

Targeted DNA integration in human cells without double-strand breaks using CRISPR RNA-guided transposases