The text deals with the identification of mineral species present and the classification of rocks through thin-sections. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are included. Illustrations are presented as hand drawings rather than photographs of actual thin-sections. (Editor's note: This is a basic reference book for stone conservators.) -- AATA

Petrography : An Introduction To The Study Of Rocks In Thin Sections Vol-1,2

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Introduction To Rock Mechanics

Rapid, field-based measurements of rock hardness are of use in investigating many geomorphological and heritage science problems. Several different methods are now available for taking such measurements, but little work has been done to assess their comparability and strengths and weaknesses. We review here the capabilities of two types of Schmidt Hammer (Classic N type and Silver Schmidt BL type) alongside two types of Equotip (standard type D and Piccolo) for investigating rock hardness in relation to rock weathering on various types of sandstone and limestone, as well as basalt and dolerite. Whilst the two Schmidt hammers and the two Equotips show comparable results when tested at 15 individual sites, interesting differences are found between the Equotip and Schmidt Hammer values which may reveal information about the nature of weathering on different surfaces. Operator variance is shown to be an issue in particular for the Equotip devices, which also exhibit higher variability in measurements and necessitate larger sample sizes. Carborundum pre-treatment also has varying effects on the data collected, depending on the nature of the surface studied. The Equotip devices are shown to be particularly useful on smaller blocks and in situations where edge effects may affect Schmidt Hammer readings. We conclude that whilst each device contributes to geomorphological research, they do not necessarily produce comparable information. Indeed, using Schmidt Hammer and Equotip in combination and looking at any differences in results may provide invaluable insights into the structure of the near-surface zones and the nature of weathering processes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The use of the Schmidt Hammer and Equotip for rock hardness assessment in geomorphology and heritage science: a comparative analysis

Engineering properties of rocks such as unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Young’s modulus (E) are among the essential parameters for the design of tunnel excavations. Many attempts have been made to develop indirect methods of estimating UCS and E. This is generally attributed to the difficulty of preparing and conducting the aforementioned tests in a laboratory. In essence, this study aims to present two predictive models of UCS and E for granite using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). The required rock samples for model development (45 granite sample sets) were obtained from site investigation work at the Pahang-Selangor raw water transfer tunnel, which was excavated across the Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia. In developing the predictive models, dry density, ultrasonic velocity, quartz content and plagioclase were set as model inputs. These parameters were selected based on simple and multiple regression analyses presented in the article. However, for the sake of comparison, the prediction performances of the ANFIS models were checked against multiple regression analysis (MRA) and artificial neural network (ANN) predictive models of UCS and E. The capacity performances of the predictive models were assessed based on the value account for (VAF), root mean squared error (RMSE) and coefficient of determination (R
 2). It was found that the ANFIS predictive model of UCS, with R
 2, RMSE and VAF equal to 0.985, 6.224 and 98.455 %, respectively, outperforms the MRA and ANN models. A similar conclusion was drawn for the ANFIS predictive model of E where the values of R
 2, RMSE and VAF were 0.990, 3.503 and 98.968 %, respectively.

An adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system for predicting unconfined compressive strength and Young’s modulus: a study on Main Range granite

Abstract Out-of-sequence deformation in the Himalaya has been caused mainly by thrusting. Out-of-sequence thrusts, usually north- to NE-dipping foreshear planes, occur inside the Sub-Himalaya (SH), Lesser Himalaya (LH) and Greater Himalayan Crystalline (GHC) sequences. Where absolute dates are available, the youngest slip within the SH occurred near the Janauri Anticline (India) at c. AD 1400–1460. The Munsiari Thrust (India) activated within the LH at c. 1–2 Ma and the Main Central Thrust zone in the Marsyandi valley (Nepal) in the GHC was formed during the Holocene (c. 0.3 ka). Except for the Riasi Thrust (Kashmir, India), the Paonta Thrust (Himachal Pradesh, India) in the Siwalik and the Tons Thrust (Garhwal region, India) within the Main Central Thrust zone, crustal shortening related to out-of-sequence thrusting in the Himalaya has been insignificant. The major litho-/stratigraphic contacts within the SH and the GHC at some places acted as out-of-sequence thrusts. Out-of-sequence thrusts in the SH have been detected mainly based on geomorphological observations. However, more quantitative geochronological studies have detected out-of-sequence thrusting from c. 22 Ma up to Holocene age in the GHC based on age jumps, especially within the Main Central Thrust zone. Crustal channel flow (specifically for the GHC) and/or the critical taper model with or without erosion can be used to explain the Himalayan out-of-sequence thrusts.

A review on out-of-sequence deformation in the Himalaya

The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India

Landslide Lake Outburst Floods (LLOFs) are common in the Himalayan river basins. These are caused by breaching of lakes created by landslides. The active and palaeo-landslide mapping along the Satluj and Spiti Rivers indicate that these rivers were blocked and breached at many places during the Quaternary period. In the present article, we document LLOFs during 2000 and 2005 caused by the breaching of landslide lakes created in the Trans-Himalayan region along the Satluj River and Paree Chu (stream), respectively, both in the Tibetan region of China and its impact on the channel and infrastructure in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India. It has been observed that the loss of life and property due to these LLOFs is directly related to the disposition of the Quaternary materials and the different morphological zones observed in the area.

Impact of the Trans-Himalayan Landslide Lake Outburst Flood (LLOF) in the Satluj catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

The control of mineral constituents and textural characteristics on the petrophysical & mechanical (PM) properties of different rocks of the Himalaya

Finite element analysis of failed slope of the Surabhi Resort landslide located in the Mussoorie township, Garhwal Himalaya has been carried out using shear strength reduction technique. Two slope models viz. debris and rock mass were taken into consideration in this study and have been analysed for possible failure of slope in future. Critical strength reduction factor (SRF) for the failed slope is observed to be 0.28 and 0.83 for the debris and rock mass model, respectively. A low SRF value of the slope revealed significant progressive displacement in the zone of detachment. This has also been evidenced in the form of cracks in the building of Surabhi Resort and presence of subsidence zones in the Mussoorie International School. These results are consistent with the study carried out by other workers using different approach.

Finite element analysis of failed slope by shear strength reduction technique: a case study for Surabhi Resort Landslide, Mussoorie township, Garhwal Himalaya

Satluj valley, located in the Higher Himalaya, is undergoing rapid development, mainly because of its high hydropower potential. The paper reports a study to determine whether the engineering properties of the granites, gneisses, quartzites and marbles encountered in the higher Himalayan terrain in the Satluj valley can realistically be determined using the Schmidt hammer and ultrasonic velocity. The results indicate a positive correlation for the granites, quartzites and marbles, but not for the folded, anisotropic gneisses.

Vikram Gupta

Papers

The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India

Impact of the Trans-Himalayan Landslide Lake Outburst Flood (LLOF) in the Satluj catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

The control of mineral constituents and textural characteristics on the petrophysical & mechanical (PM) properties of different rocks of the Himalaya

Finite element analysis of failed slope by shear strength reduction technique: a case study for Surabhi Resort Landslide, Mussoorie township, Garhwal Himalaya

Non-destructive testing of some Higher Himalayan Rocks in the Satluj Valley