I have developed "tennis elbow" from lugging this book around the past four weeks, but it is worth the pain, the effort, and the aspirin. It is also worth the (relatively speaking) bargain price. Including appendixes, this book contains 894 pages of text. The entire panorama of the neural sciences is surveyed and examined, and it is comprehensive in its scope, from genomes to social behaviors. The editors explicitly state that the book is designed as "an introductory text for students of biology, behavior, and medicine," but it is hard to imagine any audience, interested in any fragment of neuroscience at any level of sophistication, that would not enjoy this book. The editors have done a masterful job of weaving together the biologic, the behavioral, and the clinical sciences into a single tapestry in which everyone from the molecular biologist to the practicing psychiatrist can find and appreciate his or

Principles of Neural Science

The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a 38-amino acid peptide that was first isolated from ovine hypothalamic extracts on the basis of its ability to stimulate cAMP formation in anterior pituitary cells. PACAP belongs to the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-glucagon-growth hormone releasing factor-secretin superfamily. The sequence of PACAP has been remarkably well conserved during the evolution from protochordate to mammals, suggesting that PACAP is involved in the regulation of important biological functions. PACAP is widely distributed in the brain and peripheral organs, notably in the endocrine pancreas, gonads, and respiratory and urogenital tracts. Characterization of the PACAP precursor has revealed the existence of a PACAP-related peptide whose activity remains unknown. Two types of PACAP binding sites have been characterized. Type I binding sites exhibit a high affinity for PACAP and a much lower affinity for VIP whereas type II binding sites have similar affinity for PACAP and VIP. Molecular cloning of PACAP receptors has shown the existence of three distinct receptor subtypes, the PACAP-specific PAC1 receptor, which is coupled to several transduction systems, and the two PACAP/VIP-indifferent VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors, which are primarily coupled to adenylyl cyclase. PAC1 receptors are particularly abundant in the brain and pituitary and adrenal glands whereas VPAC receptors are expressed mainly in the lung, liver, and testis. The wide distribution of PACAP and PACAP receptors has led to an explosion of studies aimed at determining the pharmacological effects and biological functions of the peptide. This report reviews the current knowledge concerning the multiple actions of PACAP in the central nervous system and in various peripheral organs including the endocrine glands, the airways, and the cardiovascular and immune systems, as well as the different effects of PACAP on a number of tumor cell types.

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide and Its Receptors: From Structure to Functions

The standard nomenclature that has been used for many telencephalic and related brainstem structures in birds is based on flawed assumptions of homology to mammals. In particular, the outdated terminology implies that most of the avian telencephalon is a hypertrophied basal ganglia, when it is now clear that most of the avian telencephalon is neurochemically, hodologically, and functionally comparable to the mammalian neocortex, claustrum, and pallial amygdala (all of which derive from the pallial sector of the developing telencephalon). Recognizing that this promotes misunderstanding of the functional organization of avian brains and their evolutionary relationship to mammalian brains, avian brain specialists began discussions to rectify this problem, culminating in the Avian Brain Nomenclature Forum held at Duke University in July 2002, which approved a new terminology for avian telencephalon and some allied brainstem cell groups. Details of this new terminology are presented here, as is a rationale for each name change and evidence for any homologies implied by the new names. Revisions for the brainstem focused on vocal control, catecholaminergic, cholinergic, and basal ganglia-related nuclei. For example, the Forum recognized that the hypoglossal nucleus had been incorrectly identified as the nucleus intermedius in the Karten and Hodos (1967) pigeon brain atlas, and what was identified as the hypoglossal nucleus in that atlas should instead be called the supraspinal nucleus. The locus ceruleus of this and other avian atlases was noted to consist of a caudal noradrenergic part homologous to the mammalian locus coeruleus and a rostral region corresponding to the mammalian A8 dopaminergic cell group. The midbrain dopaminergic cell group in birds known as the nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus pars compacta was recognized as homologous to the mammalian substantia nigra pars compacta and was renamed accordingly; a group of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons at the lateral edge of this region was identified as homologous to the mammalian substantia nigra pars reticulata and was also renamed accordingly. A field of cholinergic neurons in the rostral avian hindbrain was named the nucleus pedunculopontinus tegmenti, whereas the anterior nucleus of the ansa lenticularis in the avian diencephalon was renamed the subthalamic nucleus, both for their evident mammalian homologues. For the basal (i.e., subpallial) telencephalon, the actual parts of the basal ganglia were given names reflecting their now evident homologues. For example, the lobus parolfactorius and paleostriatum augmentatum were acknowledged to make up the dorsal subdivision of the striatal part of the basal ganglia and were renamed as the medial and lateral striatum. The paleostriatum primitivum was recognized as homologous to the mammalian globus pallidus and renamed as such. Additionally, the rostroventral part of what was called the lobus parolfactorius was acknowledged as comparable to the mammalian nucleus accumbens, which, together with the olfactory tubercle, was noted to be part of the ventral striatum in birds. A ventral pallidum, a basal cholinergic cell group, and medial and lateral bed nuclei of the stria terminalis were also recognized. The dorsal (i.e., pallial) telencephalic regions that had been erroneously named to reflect presumed homology to striatal parts of mammalian basal ganglia were renamed as part of the pallium, using prefixes that retain most established abbreviations, to maintain continuity with the outdated nomenclature. We concluded, however, that one-to-one (i.e., discrete) homologies with mammals are still uncertain for most of the telencephalic pallium in birds and thus the new pallial terminology is largely devoid of assumptions of one-to-one homologies with mammals. The sectors of the hyperstriatum composing the Wulst (i.e., the hyperstriatum accessorium intermedium, and dorsale), the hyperstriatum ventrale, the neostriatum, and the archistriatum have been renamed (respectively) the hyperpallium (hypertrophied pallium), the mesopallium (middle pallium), the nidopallium (nest pallium), and the arcopallium (arched pallium). The posterior part of the archistriatum has been renamed the posterior pallial amygdala, the nucleus taeniae recognized as part of the avian amygdala, and a region inferior to the posterior paleostriatum primitivum included as a subpallial part of the avian amygdala. The names of some of the laminae and fiber tracts were also changed to reflect current understanding of the location of pallial and subpallial sectors of the avian telencephalon. Notably, the lamina medularis dorsalis has been renamed the pallial-subpallial lamina. We urge all to use this new terminology, because we believe it will promote better communication among neuroscientists. Further information is available at http://avianbrain.org

/pdf/revised-nomenclature-for-avian-telencephalon-and-some-5g5xk62zhi.pdf

Revised Nomenclature for Avian Telencephalon and Some Related Brainstem Nuclei

All animals evaluate the salience of external stimuli and integrate them with internal physiological information into adaptive behavior. Natural and sexual selection impinge on these processes, yet our understanding of behavioral decision-making mechanisms and their evolution is still very limited. Insights from mammals indicate that two neural circuits are of crucial importance in this context: the social behavior network and the mesolimbic reward system. Here we review evidence from neurochemical, tract-tracing, developmental, and functional lesion/stimulation studies that delineates homology relationships for most of the nodes of these two circuits across the five major vertebrate lineages: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and teleost fish. We provide for the first time a comprehensive comparative analysis of the two neural circuits and conclude that they were already present in early vertebrates. We also propose that these circuits form a larger social decision-making (SDM) network that regulates adaptive behavior. Our synthesis thus provides an important foundation for understanding the evolution of the neural mechanisms underlying reward processing and behavioral regulation. J. Comp. Neurol. 519:3599–3639, 2011.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/cne.22735

The Vertebrate mesolimbic reward system and social behavior network: A comparative synthesis

Robust feeding following central administration of neuropeptide Y or peptide YY in chicks, Gallus domesticus.

Nineteen nuclei and two areas within the avian hypothalamus were identified and located on specific corss-sectional planes of a stereotaxic atlas of the fowl. Latin terms applied to the nuclei and associated fiber tracts were compared among several authors and a suggested standardized nomenclature presented for hypothalamic structures. Nine circumventricular organs (CVOs) were also located throughout the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon of the chicken. A majority of the CVOs were found near nuclei.

Nomenclature and location of avian hypothalamic nuclei and associated circumventricular organs.

Neuropeptide Y: brain localization and central effects on plasma insulin levels in chicks.

The neural regulation of food intake seems to be quite similar in birds and mammals. The ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome produced by lesions within the mediobasal hypothalamus of both birds and mammals is composed of several independent physiological and behavioral changes. Other neural sites known to be important in mammals for regulating food intake need to be examined in birds including the paraventricular nucleus, nucleus tractus solitarius and parabrachial nucleus. Members of the opioid and pancreatic polypeptide families are effective in stimulating food intake in avian species. Both prolactin and growth hormone are also efficacious in stimulating food intake. In contrast, cholecystokinin inhibits food intake when administered intracerebroventricularly. The autonomic and endocrine hypothesis developed to explain obesity in mammals appears to be quite applicable to genetic strains of commercial birds selected for meat production. Specifically the commercial broiler appears to display an imbalance of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system dominates as a consequence of intense genetic selection for growth rate.

Central neuroanatomical systems involved in the regulation of food intake in birds and mammals

The paper reviews hypotheses explaining the regulation of food intake in mammals that have addressed specific anatomical structures in the brain. An hypothesis, poikilostasis, is introduced to describe multiple, homeostatic states whereby the regulation of metabolism and feeding occur in birds. Examples are given for both wild and domestic avian species, illustrating dynamic shifts in homeostasis responsible for the changes in body weights that are seen during the course of an annual cycle or by a particular strain of bird. The following neural structures are reviewed as each has been shown to affect food intake in birds or in mammals: ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (n.), lateral hypothalamic area, paraventricular hypothalamic n., n. tractus solitarius and area postrema, amygdala, parabrachial n., arcuate n. and bed n. of the stria terminalis. Two neural pathways are described which have been proposed to regulate feeding. The trigeminal sensorimotor pathway is the most complete neural pathway characterized for this behavior and encompasses the mechanics of pecking, grasping and mandibulating food particles from the tip of the bill to the back of the buccal cavity. A second pathway, the visceral forebrain system (VFS), affects feeding by regulating metabolism and the balance of the autonomic nervous system. Wild, migratory birds are shown to exhibit marked changes in body weight which are hypothesized to occur due to shifts in balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Domestic avian species, selected for a rapid growth rate, are shown to display a dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system. The VFS is the neural system proposed to effect poikilostasis by altering the steady state of the autonomic nervous system in aves and perhaps is applicable to other classes of vertebrates as well.

Wayne J. Kuenzel

Papers

Robust feeding following central administration of neuropeptide Y or peptide YY in chicks, Gallus domesticus.

Nomenclature and location of avian hypothalamic nuclei and associated circumventricular organs.

Neuropeptide Y: brain localization and central effects on plasma insulin levels in chicks.

Central neuroanatomical systems involved in the regulation of food intake in birds and mammals

Neural sites and pathways regulating food intake in birds: a comparative analysis to mammalian systems.