Virus-like particle (VLP) technology is a promising approach for the construction of novel vaccines, diagnostic tools, and gene therapy vectors. Initially, VLPs were primarily derived from non-enveloped icosahedral or helical viruses and proved to be viable vaccine candidates due to their effective presentation of epitopes in a native conformation. VLP technology has also been used to prepare chimeric VLPs decorated with genetically fused or chemically coupled epitope stretches selected from immunologically defined target proteins. However, structural constraints associated with the rigid geometrical architecture of icosahedral or helical VLPs pose challenges for the expression and presentation of large epitopes. Complex VLPs derived from non-symmetric enveloped viruses are increasingly being used to incorporate large epitopes and even full-length foreign proteins. Pleomorphic VLPs derived from influenza or other enveloped viruses can accommodate multiple full-length and/or chimeric proteins that can be rationally designed for multifunctional purposes, including multivalent vaccines. Therefore, a second generation of VLP carriers is represented by complex particles reconstructed from natural or chimeric structural proteins derived from complex enveloped viruses. Further development of safe and efficient VLP nanotechnology may require a rational combination of both approaches.

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Development of Virus-Like Particle Technology from Small Highly Symmetric to Large Complex Virus-Like Particle Structures

http://media.journals.elsevier.com/content/files/s0264410x12015563-25140527.pdf

Virus-like particles as a highly efficient vaccine platform: diversity of targets and production systems and advances in clinical development.

Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne member of the Flavivirus genus and includes four serotypes (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), each of which is capable of causing dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome. Serious disease can be seen during primary infection but is more frequent following second infection with a serotype different from that of a previous infection. Infection with wild-type DENV induces high-titered neutralizing antibody that can provide long-term immunity to the homotypic virus and can provide short-term immunity (only several months duration) to a heterotypic DENV. The high level of virus replication seen during both secondary infection with a heterotypic virus and during primary DENV infection in late infancy is a direct consequence of antibody-dependent enhancement of replication. This enhanced virus replication is mediated primarily by preexisting, nonneutralizing, or subneutralizing antibodies to the virion surface antigens that enhance access of the virion-antibody complex to FcγR-bearing cells. Vaccines will need to provide long-term protection against each of the four DENV serotypes by inducing neutralizing antibodies, and live, attenuated and various nonliving virus vaccines are in development.

Immune Response to Dengue Virus and Prospects for a Vaccine

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are virus-derived structures made up of one or more different molecules with the ability to self-assemble, mimicking the form and size of a virus particle but lacking the genetic material so they are not capable of infecting the host cell. Expression and self-assembly of the viral structural proteins can take place in various living or cell-free expression systems after which the viral structures can be assembled and reconstructed. VLPs are gaining in popularity in the field of preventive medicine and to date, a wide range of VLP-based candidate vaccines have been developed for immunization against various infectious agents, the latest of which is the vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, the efficacy of which is being evaluated. VLPs are highly immunogenic and are able to elicit both the antibody- and cell-mediated immune responses by pathways different from those elicited by conventional inactivated viral vaccines. However, there are still many challenges to this surface display system that need to be addressed in the future. VLPs that are classified as subunit vaccines are subdivided into enveloped and non- enveloped subtypes both of which are discussed in this review article. VLPs have also recently received attention for their successful applications in targeted drug delivery and for use in gene therapy. The development of more effective and targeted forms of VLP by modification of the surface of the particles in such a way that they can be introduced into specific cells or tissues or increase their half-life in the host is likely to expand their use in the future. Recent advances in the production and fabrication of VLPs including the exploration of different types of expression systems for their development, as well as their applications as vaccines in the prevention of infectious diseases and cancers resulting from their interaction with, and mechanism of activation of, the humoral and cellular immune systems are discussed in this review.

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Virus-like particles: preparation, immunogenicity and their roles as nanovaccines and drug nanocarriers.

https://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2013/april/6_Dengue_SAGE_Apr2013_Preclinical_Vaccine_Pipeline.pdf

Next generation dengue vaccines: a review of candidates in preclinical development.

The envelope glycoprotein (E) of flavivirus is the major structural protein on the surface of the mature virions. The complexes of premembrane (prM) and E play important roles in virus assembly and fusion modulation and in potential immunity-inducing vaccines. In the present study, the cDNA encoding prM and E proteins of dengue virus type 2 (DENV-2) was subcloned into the pGAPZαA vector and further integrated into the genome of Pichia pastoris under the control of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAP) constitutive promoter. The high-level constitutive expression of recombinant E antigen was achieved in P. pastoris. Both the cell lysate and the culture supernatant, examined by electron microscopy, were found to contain DENV-2 virus-like particles (VLPs) with diameters of about 30 nm. After immunization of BALB/c mice, the VLPs exhibited similar efficacies as inactivated virus in terms of antibody induction and neutralization titer. These results suggest that recombinant DENV VLPs can be efficiently produced in the GAP promoter-based P. pastoris expression system. This system may be useful for the development of effective and economic dengue subunit vaccine.

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Recombinant dengue virus-like particles from Pichia pastoris: efficient production and immunological properties

Background Dengue is currently a significant global health problem but no vaccines are available against the four dengue serotypes virus infections.The development of safe and effective vaccines has been hampered by the requirement of conferring complete protection against all four dengue serotypes and the lack of a convenient animal model.Virus-like particles (VLPs) have emerged as a promising subunit vaccine candidate.One strategy of vaccine development is to produce a tetravalent dengue subunit vaccine by mixing recombinant VLPs,corresponding to all four dengue virus serotypes.Towards this end,this study aimed to establish a Pichia pastoris (P.pastoris) expression system for production of dengue virus type 1 (DENV-1) VLPs and evaluate the humoral and cellular immune response of this particle in mice.Methods A recombinant yeast P.pastoris clone containing prM and E genes of DENV-1 was constructed and DENV-1 VLPs expressed by this clone were analyzed by sucrose density gradient centrifugation,Western blotting,and transmission electron microscope.Groups of mice were immunized by these particles plus adjuvant formulations,then mice were tested by ELISA and neutralization assay for humoral immune response,and by lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production assays for a cellular immune response.Results Our data demonstrated that recombinant DENV-1 VLPs consisting of prM and E protein were successfully expressed in the yeast P.pastoris.Sera of VLPs immunized mice were shown to contain a high-titer of antibodies and the neutralization assay suggested that those antibodies neutralized virus infection in vitro.Data from the T lymphocyte proliferation assay showed proliferation of T cell,and ELISA found elevated secretion levels of interferon IFN-y and IL-4.Conclusions P.pastoris-expressed DENV-1 VLPs can induce virus neutralizing antibodies and T cell responses in immunized mice.Using P.pastoris to produce VLPs offers a promising and economic strategy for dengue virus vaccine development.

Xiao-Meng Yang

Papers

Recombinant dengue virus-like particles from Pichia pastoris: efficient production and immunological properties

Induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies and T cell responses by dengue virus type 1 virus-like particles prepared from Pichia pastoris.