Rapid evolution of miniaturized, automatic, robotized, function-centered devices has redefined space technology, bringing closer the realization of most ambitious interplanetary missions and intense near-Earth space exploration. Small unmanned satellites and probes are now being launched in hundreds at a time, resurrecting a dream of satellite constellations, i.e., wide, all-covering networks of small satellites capable of forming universal multifunctional, intelligent platforms for global communication, navigation, ubiquitous data mining, Earth observation, and many other functions, which was once doomed by the extraordinary cost of such systems. The ingression of novel nanostructured materials provided a solid base that enabled the advancement of these affordable systems in aspects of power, instrumentation, and communication. However, absence of efficient and reliable thrust systems with the capacity to support precise maneuvering of small satellites and CubeSats over long periods of deployment remains a real stumbling block both for the deployment of large satellite systems and for further exploration of deep space using a new generation of spacecraft. The last few years have seen tremendous global efforts to develop various miniaturized space thrusters, with great success stories. Yet, there are critical challenges that still face the space technology. These have been outlined at an inaugural International Workshop on Micropropulsion and Cubesats, MPCS-2017, a joint effort between Plasma Sources and Application Centre/Space Propulsion Centre (Singapore) and the Micropropulsion and Nanotechnology Lab, the G. Washington University (USA) devoted to miniaturized space propulsion systems, and hosted by CNR-Nanotec—P.Las.M.I. lab in Bari, Italy. This focused review aims to highlight the most promising developments reported at MPCS-2017 by leading world-reputed experts in miniaturized space propulsion systems. Recent advances in several major types of small thrusters including Hall thrusters, ion engines, helicon, and vacuum arc devices are presented, and trends and perspectives are outlined.

Space micropropulsion systems for Cubesats and small satellites: from proximate targets to furthermost frontiers

This dissertation presents research aimed at extending the efficient operation of 1600 s specific impulse Hall thruster technology to the 2000 to 3000 s range. Motivated by previous industry efforts and mission studies, the aim of this research was to develop and characterize xenon Hall thrusters capable of both high-specific impulse and high-efficiency operation. During the development phase, the laboratory-model NASA 173M Hall thrusters were designed and their performance and plasma characteristics were evaluated. Experiments with the NASA-173M version 1 (v1) validated the plasma lens magnetic field design. Experiments with the NASA 173M version 2 (v2) showed there was a minimum current density and optimum magnetic field topography at which efficiency monotonically increased with voltage. Comparison of the thrusters showed that efficiency can be optimized for specific impulse by varying the plasma lens. During the characterization phase, additional plasma properties of the NASA 173Mv2 were measured and a performance model was derived. Results from the model and experimental data showed how efficient operation at high-specific impulse was enabled through regulation of the electron current with the magnetic field. The electron Hall parameter was approximately constant with voltage, which confirmed efficient operation can be realized only over a limited range of Hall parameters.

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Development and Characterization of High-Efficiency, High-Specific Impulse Xenon Hall Thrusters

Plasma thrusters are challenging the monopoly of chemical thrusters in space propulsion. The specific energy that can be deposited into a plasma beam is orders of magnitude larger than the specific chemical energy of known fuels. Plasma thrusters constitute a vast family of devices ranging from already commercial thrusters to incipient laboratory prototypes. Figures of merit in plasma propulsion are discussed. Plasma processes and conditions differ widely from one thruster to another, with the pre-eminence of magnetized, weakly collisional plasmas. Energy is imparted to the plasma via either energetic electron injection, biased electrodes or electromagnetic irradiation. Plasma acceleration can be electrothermal, electrostatic or electromagnetic. Plasma–wall interaction affects energy deposition and erosion of thruster elements, and thus is central for thruster efficiency and lifetime. Magnetic confinement and magnetic nozzles are present in several devices. Oscillations and turbulent transport are intrinsic to the performances of some thrusters. Several thrusters are selected in order to discuss these relevant plasma phenomena.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0741-3335/53/12/124037/pdf

Plasmas for space propulsion

We demonstrate a technique by which erosion of the acceleration channel in Hall thrusters can be reduced by at least a few orders of magnitude. The first principles of the technique, now known as “magnetic shielding,” have been derived based on the findings of 2-D numerical simulations. The simulations, in turn, guided the modification of an existing 6-kW laboratory Hall thruster to test the theory and are the main subject of this Part I article. Part II expands on the results of the experiments. Near the walls of the magnetically shielded (MS) thruster theory and experiment agree that (1) the plasma potential has been sustained at values near the discharge voltage, and (2) the electron temperature has been lowered compared to the unshielded thruster. Erosion rates deduced directly from the wall probes show reductions of at least ∼3 orders of magnitude at the MS inner wall when an ion energy threshold of 30.5 V is used in the sputtering yield model of the channel material. At the outer wall the probes reveal that the ion energy was below the assumed threshold. Using a threshold of 25 V, the simulations predict a minimum reduction of ∼600 at the MS inner wall. At the MS outer wall ion energies are found to be below 25 V. When a 50-V threshold is used the computed ion energies are below the threshold at both sides of the channel. Uncertainties, sensitivities, and differences between theory and experiment are also discussed. The elimination of wall erosion in Hall thrusters solves a problem that has remained unsettled for more than five decades.

Magnetic shielding of a laboratory Hall thruster. I. Theory and validation

The physics of magnetic shielding in Hall thrusters were validated through laboratory experiments demonstrating essentially erosionless, high-performance operation. The magnetic field near the walls of a laboratory Hall thruster was modified to effectively eliminate wall erosion while maintaining the magnetic field topology away from the walls necessary to retain efficient operation. Plasma measurements at the walls validate our understanding of magnetic shielding as derived from the theory. The plasma potential was maintained very near the anode potential, the electron temperature was reduced by a factor of two to three, and the ion current density was reduced by at least a factor of two. Measurements of the carbon backsputter rate, wall geometry, and direct measurement of plasma properties at the wall indicate that the wall erosion rate was reduced by a factor of 1000 relative to the unshielded thruster. These changes effectively eliminate wall erosion as a life limitation in Hall thrusters, enabling a new class of deep-space missions that could not previously be attempted.

Magnetic shielding of a laboratory Hall thruster. II. Experiments

The low-energy sputtering of boron nitride, magnesium oxide, boron nitride and aluminum nitride (BNAlN), and boron nitride and silicon oxide (BNSiO2) by xenon ions of bombarding energies 350, 500 eV, and 1 keV was studied experimentally. In order to measure the ion current without being significantly disturbed by slow ions, only planar probes were used during short duration sputtering experiments (of the order of 10 h). Moreover, slow ion current contribution was estimated by numerical simulations and subtracted from each ion current measurement. It was found that the ion-beam incidence effect on sputtering yields was not as important as for theoretical results or experimental results on quasinonrough solid surfaces, for which it is possible to observe a more pronounced angular dependence of the sputtering yield. This phenomenon is due to surface irregularities of ceramic materials and because of surface roughness the macroscopic sputtering yield should actually result from the convolution of the microsco...

Y. Garnier

Papers

Low-energy xenon ion sputtering of ceramics investigated for stationary plasma thrusters