We review different dark energy cosmologies. In particular, we present the ΛCDM cosmology, Little Rip and Pseudo-Rip universes, the phantom and quintessence cosmologies with Type I, II, III and IV finite-time future singularities and non-singular dark energy universes. In the first part, we explain the ΛCDM model and well-established observational tests which constrain the current cosmic acceleration. After that, we investigate the dark fluid universe where a fluid has quite general equation of state (EoS) [including inhomogeneous or imperfect EoS]. All the above dark energy cosmologies for different fluids are explicitly realized, and their properties are also explored. It is shown that all the above dark energy universes may mimic the ΛCDM model currently, consistent with the recent observational data. Furthermore, special attention is paid to the equivalence of different dark energy models. We consider single and multiple scalar field theories, tachyon scalar theory and holographic dark energy as models for current acceleration with the features of quintessence/phantom cosmology, and demonstrate their equivalence to the corresponding fluid descriptions. In the second part, we study another equivalent class of dark energy models which includes F(R) gravity as well as F(R) Hořava-Lifshitz gravity and the teleparallel f(T) gravity. The cosmology of such models representing the ΛCDM-like universe or the accelerating expansion with the quintessence/phantom nature is described. Finally, we approach the problem of testing dark energy and alternative gravity models to general relativity by cosmography. We show that degeneration among parameters can be removed by accurate data analysis of large data samples and also present the examples.

Dark energy cosmology: the equivalent description via different theoretical models and cosmography tests

We review different dark energy cosmologies. In particular, we present the $\Lambda$CDM cosmology, Little Rip and Pseudo-Rip universes, the phantom and quintessence cosmologies with Type I, II, III and IV finite-time future singularities and non-singular dark energy universes. In the first part, we explain the $\Lambda$CDM model and well-established observational tests which constrain the current cosmic acceleration. After that, we investigate the dark fluid universe where a fluid has quite general equation of state (EoS) [including inhomogeneous or imperfect EoS]. All the above dark energy cosmologies for different fluids are explicitly realized, and their properties are also explored. It is shown that all the above dark energy universes may mimic the $\Lambda$CDM model currently, consistent with the recent observational data. Furthermore, special attention is paid to the equivalence of different dark energy models. We consider single and multiple scalar field theories, tachyon scalar theory and holographic dark energy as models for current acceleration with the features of quintessence/phantom cosmology, and demonstrate their equivalence to the corresponding fluid descriptions. In the second part, we study another equivalent class of dark energy models which includes $F(R)$ gravity as well as $F(R)$ Hořava-Lifshitz gravity and the teleparallel $f(T)$ gravity. The cosmology of such models representing the $\Lambda$CDM-like universe or the accelerating expansion with the quintessence/phantom nature is described. Finally, we approach the problem of testing dark energy and alternative gravity models to general relativity by cosmography. We show that degeneration among parameters can be removed by accurate data analysis of large data samples and also present the examples.

When all thermonuclear sources of energy are exhausted a sufficiently heavy star will collapse. Unless fission due to rotation, the radiation of mass, or the blowing off of mass by radiation, reduce the star's mass to the order of that of the sun, this contraction will continue indefinitely. In the present paper we study the solutions of the gravitational field equations which describe this process. In I, general and qualitative arguments are given on the behavior of the metrical tensor as the contraction progresses: the radius of the star approaches asymptotically its gravitational radius; light from the surface of the star is progressively reddened, and can escape over a progressively narrower range of angles. In II, an analytic solution of the field equations confirming these general arguments is obtained for the case that the pressure within the star can be neglected. The total time of collapse for an observer comoving with the stellar matter is finite, and for this idealized case and typical stellar masses, of the order of a day; an external observer sees the star asymptotically shrinking to its gravitational radius.

On Continued Gravitational Contraction

We demonstrate that there appear finite-time future singularities in $f(T)$ gravity with $T$ being the torsion scalar. We reconstruct a model of $f(T)$ gravity with realizing the finite-time future singularities. In addition, it is explicitly shown that a power-law-type correction term ${T}^{\ensuremath{\beta}}$ ($\ensuremath{\beta}g1$) such as a ${T}^{2}$ term can remove the finite-time future singularities in $f(T)$ gravity. Moreover, we study $f(T)$ models with realizing inflation in the early universe, the $\ensuremath{\Lambda}\mathrm{CDM}$ model, little rip cosmology and pseudo-rip cosmology. It is demonstrated that the disintegration of bound structures for little rip and pseudo-rip cosmologies occurs in the same way as in gravity with corresponding dark energy fluid. We also discuss that the time-dependent matter instability in the star collapse can occur in $f(T)$ gravity. Furthermore, we explore thermodynamics in $f(T)$ gravity and illustrate that the second law of thermodynamics can be satisfied around the finite-time future singularities for the universe with the temperature inside the horizon being the same as that of the apparent horizon.

Reconstruction of f(T) gravity: Rip cosmology, finite-time future singularities, and thermodynamics

https://pure.mpg.de/pubman/item/item_2533988_4/component/file_2533987/1712.03107.pdf

Dynamical systems applied to cosmology: dark energy and modified gravity

In this paper, we present a new cosmological event, which we named the little sibling of the big rip. This event is much smoother than the big rip singularity. When the little sibling of the big rip is reached, the Hubble rate and the scale factor blow up, but the cosmic derivative of the Hubble rate does not. This abrupt event takes place at an infinite cosmic time where the scalar curvature explodes. We show that a doomsday a la little sibling of the big rip is compatible with an accelerating universe, indeed at present it would mimic perfectly a ΛCDM scenario. It turns out that, even though the event seems to be harmless as it takes place in the infinite future, the bound structures in the universe would be unavoidably destroyed on a finite cosmic time from now. The model can be motivated by considering that the weak energy condition should not be strongly violated in our universe, and it could give us some hints about the status of recently formulated nonlinear energy conditions.

The little sibling of the big rip singularity

The equivalence between f(R) gravity and scalar-tensor theories is invoked to study the null, strong, weak and dominant energy conditions in Brans-Dicke theory. We consider the validity of the energy conditions in Brans-Dicke theory by invoking the energy conditions derived from a generic f(R) theory. The parameters involved are shown to be consistent with an accelerated expanding universe.

Energy conditions in f(R) gravity and Brans-Dicke theories

https://ubibliorum.ubi.pt/bitstream/10400.6/4614/1/1608.01679.pdf

Interacting 3-form dark energy models: distinguishing interactions and avoiding the Little Sibling of the Big Rip

An induced gravity brane-world model is considered herein. A Gauss-Bonnet term is provided for the bulk, whereas phantom matter is present on the brane. It is shown that a combination of infra-red and ultra-violet modifications to general relativity replaces a big rip singularity: A sudden singularity emerges instead. Using current observational data, we also determine a range of values for the cosmic time corresponding to the sudden singularity occurrence.

Yaser Tavakoli

Papers

The little sibling of the big rip singularity

Energy conditions in f(R) gravity and Brans-Dicke theories

Energy conditions in f(R) gravity and Brans-Dicke theories

Interacting 3-form dark energy models: distinguishing interactions and avoiding the Little Sibling of the Big Rip

Appeasing the phantom menace