. In this contribution, we present a review of scientific research results that address seismo-hydromechanically coupled processes relevant for the development of a sustainable heat exchanger in low-permeability crystalline rock and introduce the design of the In situ Stimulation and Circulation (ISC) experiment at the Grimsel Test Site dedicated to studying such processes under controlled conditions. The review shows that research on reservoir stimulation for deep geothermal energy exploitation has been largely based on laboratory observations, large-scale projects and numerical models. Observations of full-scale reservoir stimulations have yielded important results. However, the limited access to the reservoir and limitations in the control on the experimental conditions during deep reservoir stimulations is insufficient to resolve the details of the hydromechanical processes that would enhance process understanding in a way that aids future stimulation design. Small-scale laboratory experiments provide fundamental insights into various processes relevant for enhanced geothermal energy, but suffer from (1) difficulties and uncertainties in upscaling the results to the field scale and (2) relatively homogeneous material and stress conditions that lead to an oversimplistic fracture flow and/or hydraulic fracture propagation behavior that is not representative of a heterogeneous reservoir. Thus, there is a need for intermediate-scale hydraulic stimulation experiments with high experimental control that bridge the various scales and for which access to the target rock mass with a comprehensive monitoring system is possible. The ISC experiment is designed to address open research questions in a naturally fractured and faulted crystalline rock mass at the Grimsel Test Site (Switzerland). Two hydraulic injection phases were executed to enhance the permeability of the rock mass. During the injection phases the rock mass deformation across fractures and within intact rock, the pore pressure distribution and propagation, and the microseismic response were monitored at a high spatial and temporal resolution.

https://se.copernicus.org/articles/9/115/2018/se-9-115-2018.pdf

The seismo-hydromechanical behavior during deep geothermal reservoir stimulations: open questions tackled in a decameter-scale in situ stimulation experiment

Conventional water-based fracturing treatments may not work well for many shale gas reservoirs. This is due to the fact that shale gas formations are much more sensitive to water because of the significant capillary effects and the potentially high contents of swelling clay, each of which may result in the impairment of productivity. As an alternative to water-based fluids, gaseous stimulants not only avoid this potential impairment in productivity, but also conserve water as a resource and may sequester greenhouse gases underground. However, experimental observations have shown that different fracturing fluids yield variations in the induced fracture. During the hydraulic fracturing process, fracturing fluids will penetrate into the borehole wall, and the evolution of the fracture(s) then results from the coupled phenomena of fluid flow, solid deformation and damage. To represent this, coupled models of rock damage mechanics and fluid flow for both slightly compressible fluids and CO2 are presented. We investigate the fracturing processes driven by pressurization of three kinds of fluids: water, viscous oil and supercritical CO2. Simulation results indicate that SC-CO2-based fracturing indeed has a lower breakdown pressure, as observed in experiments, and may develop fractures with greater complexity than those developed with water-based and oil-based fracturing. We explore the relation between the breakdown pressure to both the dynamic viscosity and the interfacial tension of the fracturing fluids. Modeling demonstrates an increase in the breakdown pressure with an increase both in the dynamic viscosity and in the interfacial tension, consistent with experimental observations.

The Influence of Fracturing Fluids on Fracturing Processes: A Comparison Between Water, Oil and SC-CO 2

Surface characteristics and permeability enhancement of shale fractures due to water and supercritical carbon dioxide fracturing

We conducted hydraulic fracturing (HF) experiments on 170 mm cubic granite specimens with a 20 mm diameter central hole to investigate how fluid viscosity affects HF process and crack properties. In experiments using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), liquid carbon dioxide (L-CO2), water, and viscous oil with viscosity of 0.051–336.6 mPa · s, we compared the results for breakdown pressure, the distribution and fracturing mechanism of acoustic emission (AE), and the microstructure of induced cracks revealed by using an acrylic resin containing a fluorescent compound. Fracturing with low-viscosity fluid induced three-dimensionally sinuous cracks with many secondary branches, which seem to be desirable pathways for enhanced geothermal system (EGS), shale gas recovery and other processes.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2016JB013365

Features of CO2 fracturing deduced from acoustic emission and microscopy in laboratory experiments

Hydraulic fracturing is a key technology in the exploitation of shale gas. Shale formations are a type of typical transverse isotropic material. The mechanisms that generate complex fracture networks during the fracturing process are of vital importance to hydraulic fracturing design. In this article, in order to analyze the effects of the anisotropic characteristics on the propagation of hydraulic fractures in shale formations, a series of hydraulic fracturing experiments were carried out with different stress conditions and injection rates. The effects of the anisotropic structure on the propagation of hydraulic fractures were revealed. The results show that the breakdown pressure increases with an increase in the injection rate of the fracturing fluid. It is suggested that the bedding plane angle of the shale formation has a great influence on the fracturing results. Additionally, as the deviator stress increases, the breakdown pressure decreases. From macroscopic observation of the fractures, different hydraulic fracture morphologies and hydraulic fracture propagation patterns were observed.

An Experimental Investigation into the Effects of the Anisotropy of Shale on Hydraulic Fracture Propagation

We performed hydraulic fracturing experiments on cylindrical cores of anisotropic shale obtained by drilling normal to the sedimentary plane. Experiments were conducted under ambient condition and uniaxial stresses, using three types of fracturing fluid: viscous oil, water, and liquid carbon dioxide (L-CO2). In the experiments using water and oil, cracks extended along the loading direction normal to the sedimentary plane under the uniaxial loading and extended along the sedimentary plane without loading. These results suggest that the direction of crack extension is strongly affected by in situ stress conditions. Fluorescent microscopy revealed that hydraulic fracturing with viscous oil produced linear cracks with few branches, whereas that with water produced cracks with many branches inclining from the loading axis. Statistical analysis of P wave polarity of acoustic emission waveforms showed that viscous oil tended to induce Mode I fracture, whereas both water and L-CO2 tended to induce Mode II fracture. Crack extension upon injection of L-CO2 was independent of loading condition unlike extension for the other two fluids. This result seemed attributable to the low viscosity of L-CO2 and was consistent with previous observations for granite specimens that low-viscosity fluids like CO2 tend to induce widely extending cracks with many branches, with Mode II fractures being dominant. These features are more advantageous for shale gas production than those induced by injection of conventional slick water.

/pdf/crack-extension-in-hydraulic-fracturing-of-shale-cores-using-apurcw5xc9.pdf

Yu Nagano

Papers

Features of CO2 fracturing deduced from acoustic emission and microscopy in laboratory experiments

Crack Extension in Hydraulic Fracturing of Shale Cores Using Viscous Oil, Water, and Liquid Carbon Dioxide