Tremendous efforts are being made to develop electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators for energy storage devices to meet the needs of emerging technologies such as electric vehicles, decarbonized electricity, and electrochemical energy storage. However, the sustainability concerns of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and next-generation rechargeable batteries have received little attention. Recycling plays an important role in the overall sustainability of future batteries and is affected by battery attributes including environmental hazards and the value of their constituent resources. Therefore, recycling should be considered when developing battery systems. Herein, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery sustainability. With a particular focus on electric vehicles, we analyze the market competitiveness of batteries in terms of economy, environment, and policy. Considering the large volumes of batteries soon to be retired, we comprehensively evaluate battery utilization and recycling from the perspectives of economic feasibility, environmental impact, technology, and safety. Battery sustainability is discussed with respect to life-cycle assessment and analyzed from the perspectives of strategic resources and economic demand. Finally, we propose a 4H strategy for battery recycling with the aims of high efficiency, high economic return, high environmental benefit, and high safety. New challenges and future prospects for battery sustainability are also highlighted.

Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects.

Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted significant attention in recent years due to the increasing demand for corresponding critical metals/materials and growing pressure on the environmental impact of solid waste disposal. A range of investigations have been carried out for recycling spent LIBs to obtain either battery materials or individual compounds. For the effective recovery of materials to be enhanced, physical pretreatment is usually applied to obtain different streams of waste materials ensuring efficient separation for further processing. Subsequently, a metallurgical process is used to extract metals or separate impurities from a specific waste stream so that the recycled materials or compounds can be further prepared by incorporating principles of materials engineering. In this review, the current status of spent LIB recycling is summarized in light of the whole recycling process, especially focusing on the hydrometallurgy. In addition to understanding different hydromet...

A Critical Review and Analysis on the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

Ever-growing global energy needs and environmental damage have motivated the pursuit of sustainable energy sources and storage technologies. As attractive energy storage technologies to integrate renewable resources and electric transportation, rechargeable batteries, including lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride, nickel–cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries, are undergoing unprecedented rapid development. However, the intrinsic toxicity of rechargeable batteries arising from their use of toxic materials is potentially environmentally hazardous. Additionally, the massive production of batteries consumes numerous resources, some of which are scarce. It is therefore essential to consider battery recycling when developing battery systems. Here, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery recycling from a sustainable perspective. We present state-of-the-art fundamental research and industrial technologies related to battery recycling, with a special focus on lithium-ion battery recycling. We introduce the concept of sustainability through a discussion of the life-cycle assessment of battery recycling. Considering the forecasted trend of a massive number of retired power batteries from the forecasted surge in electric vehicles, their repurposing and reuse are considered from economic, technical, environmental, and market perspectives. New opportunities, challenges, and future prospects for battery recycling are then summarized. A reinterpreted 3R strategy entailing redesign, reuse, and recycling is recommended for the future development of battery recycling.

Toward sustainable and systematic recycling of spent rechargeable batteries

Recycling End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries

Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of lithium recovery: A critical review

Herein, the method of hydrometallurgy is adopted to recycle the precious metal cobalt in spent lithium ion batteries (LIBs). The best experimental conditions for leaching cobalt ions in sulphuric acid–hydrogen peroxide system are studied. The best leaching operation condition is an H2SO4 concentration of 3.0 mol L−1, liquid–solid ratio of 7 : 1 and hydrogen peroxide dosage of 1.6 mL g−1 for 2.5 h at 70 °C. Using the extraction characteristics of D2EHPA (di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid) and PC-88A (2-ethylhexyl phosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester) for a specific ion in different pH value leaching solutions, the best experimental conditions are D2EHPA and PC-88A saponification rates of 20% and 30%, respectively, sulfonated kerosene volume of 70%, oil–water (O/A) ratio of 1 : 1, and extraction time of 10 min. Two extractions are applied, the first extraction occurs at pH 2.70 and the second extraction is done at pH 2.60 using D2EHPA to remove copper and manganese ions. After the extraction operation, PC-88A is used to further extract the leaching solution and maintain the pH at 4.25, so that cobalt and nickel ions are effectively separated, then cobalt ions are separated by oxalic acid and cobalt oxalate is obtained. The purity of cobalt is as high as 99.50%.

Zheng Chen

Papers

Recovery of cobalt from spent lithium ion batteries using sulphuric acid leaching followed by solid–liquid separation and solvent extraction