Showing papers in "Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics in 1974"

The evolution of social behavior

Abstract: For several years the study of social behavior has been undergoing a revolution with far-reaching consequences for the social and biological sciences. Partly responsible are three recent changes in the attitudes of evolutionary biologists. First was growing acceptance of the evidence that the potency of natural selection is overwhelmingly concentrated at levels no higher than that of the individual. Second was revival of the comparative method, especially as applied to behavior and life histories. Third was spread of the realization that not only are all aspects of structure and function of organisms to be understood solely as products of selection, but because of their peculiarly direct relationship to the forces of selection, behavior and life history phenomena, long neglected by the evolutionists, may be among the most predictable of all phenotypic attributes. These ideas have been appreciated by a few biologists for a long time, but they have only recently begun to characterize the science as a whole. Darwin’s discussion of sterility between species as an incidental effect of evolutionary adaptation (41, p. 260) and his refusal to deal with sex ratio selection (42, p. 399) suggest awareness of the difficult problem of determining the levels at which selection is most powerful. Yet significant clarification of this basic issue did not really commence until publication of Wynne-Edwards’ massive volume (179) championing group selection and inadvertently exposing its unlikelihood. As late as 1958, Fisher felt constrained to add to the revised edition of his 1929 classic, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, the admonishment (53, p. 49) that his fundamental theorem and its associated considerations, already misused then by decades of population geneticists dealing (as they saw it) with the fitness of populations, refer strictly to "the progressive modification of structure or function only in so far as variations in these are ofadvantage to the individual... [and afford] no corresponding explanation for any properties of animals and plants.., supposed to be of service to the species to which they belong." Williams’ critique (171) provided a significant turning point. Nevertheless, one has only to pick up any biological journal or attend any biological meeting to realize that this question has not yet been settled for all

The Measurement of Species Diversity

Abstract: Inspired significantly by the provocative papers of MacArthur (34, 35, 38) and Hutchinson (22), ecologists over the past twenty years have devoted considerable energy to the explanation of patterns of diversity in ecologic systems Despite considerable interest, however, no generally accepted definition of diversity has emerged "Diversity per se does not exist," was the contention of Hurlbert (20), who suggested abandoning the term because of the multiplicity of meanings and interpre­ tations attached to it MacArthur (37) also considered the term had outlived its usefulness, and Eberhardt (10), Austin (2), and McIntosh (40) all complained of the lack of a definition Eberhardt considered that diversity "mostly suggests a consider­ able confusion of concepts, definitions, models, and measures (or indices)" If diver­ sity is to continue to play a productive role in ecological investigations, agreement is needed on the definitions of the many constituent concepts included in its current application At the community level of synthesis many phenomena are complex and open to multiple interpretation Consequently, many authors have suggested diversity in­ dices appropriate for their own studies, no one of which can be considered a priori correct for general application (12, 19,20,32,40) Diversity, in essence, has always been defined by the indices used to measure it, and this has not fostered the sort of uniformity which allows the clear statement of ideas and hypotheses Progress in ecology, as in all science, depends upon precise and unambiguous definition of terms and concepts (2, 40, 44) The present contribution attempts to define in a precise, but still generalized I1\anner, what is or should be meant by the many terms sur­ rounding the concept-cluster diversity Guidelines are also suggested for the applica­ tion of the many ayailable diversity indices

The Ecology of Secondary Succession

Abstract: Rather than review the ample and expanding literature of succession, as Drury & Nisbet (12) have lately and nobly done, I propose to cover some recent developments in population biology that have profound implications for theories and patterns of secondary succession. Much of the conventional wisdom of successional theory rests on biased definitions and hidden assumptions. So I begin by defining what I mean by succession, and stating why I limit my discussion to secondary succession. Succession is a pattern of changes in specific composition of a community after a radical disturbance or after the opening of a new patch in the physical environment for colonization by plants and animals. If the physical environment remains con­ stant, eventually the changes in the specific composition of the community become undetectably slow or cease altogether. This late stage of succession is dignified by the term "climax." The climax is often idealized as a state of constant specific composition, though of course the species and their relative abundances fluctuate statistically and vary from place to place as the physical environment changes along more or less perceptible gradients. Thus I concur with the concept of climax proposed by Whittaker (49, 50), that is, a pattern of species' abundances, which, while locally constant, varies from place to place in a continuous fashion. Because population biology treats interactions between organisms, I limit my discussion to secondary succession, the process of reestablishment of a reasonable facsimile of the original community after a temporary disturbance. Secondary succession is usually a result of interspecific competition, with pioneer species often beating later species to openings and perhaps outcompeting them in openings as well, but themselves producing an environment in which later species are competitively superior. Hence I ignore at least that component of succession that is a direct response of one or more species to secular changes in the environment: primary succession (e.g. as a lake fills with silt or as bare rock weathers to mineral soi!), seasonal succession, and succes­ sions that track climatic changes over geological time. For a short, thorough, and constructive account of successional patterns see Whittaker's (54) book and its impending new edition. Odum (37, 38) concisely

Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography and Ecology

Abstract: Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF ISLANDSOceanic islands and archipelagoes are intrinsically important to biologists; 5% ofthe land surface of the earth is insular, and if South America, which has been anisland throughout most of its existence, is included the figure rises to 19%. Signifi-cant portions of the evolutionary histories of many economically and biologicallyimportant species occurred on oceanic islands, and if the earth were not liberallysprinkled with isolated bits of land in addition to the "world continent," its biotawould be much poorer.But the intrinsic importance of islands, scientific or economic, has not inspiredthe intense research in island biogeography which justifies this review of recentadvances. Rather it is the realization that oceanic islands are paradigms for geo-graphic entities ranging in size from tiny habitat patches (52, 53) to continents (86,92, 112) or even the entire earth (74). It is almost a platitude that Darwin’s observa-tions in the Galapagos Archipelago and Wallace’s in the Malay Archipelago crystal-lized the then nascent concept of organic evolution by natural selection (13, 110),and many other classical evolutionary advances rest originally on insular observa-tions. Because islands are so clearly isolated from other land masses, island popula-tion data contributed heavily to the realization that most speciation is allopatric(54). Wallace’s Malaysian observations allowed strong inferences about changingsea levels, past land connections, and the position of a line separating two greatbiogeographic provinces (110). Insular isolation is important ecologically becauseit allows us to be virtually certain that an organism encountered on an island is atrue nesiote. Consequently, problems in Community structure and function, such asthe distribution of individuals into species or the trophic relationships among popu-lations, are more readily attacked in an island setting; any organism found there isassuredly a member of the biotic community.161

Effects and Functions in the Evolution of Signaling Systems

Abstract: The concept of communication holds a central position in studies of social behavior and other mutualistic relations. In this paper I examine communication from a selectionist point of view. I begin by commenting upon logical difficulties arising from certain interpretations of information transmission phenomena. Then I evaluate the role of deceit in the evolution of social interactions. Finally, I consider the more important selective forces shaping signaling systems. A common and critical difficulty in treatments of communicative systems centers on the failure to distinguish between evolved functions and incidental effects (86). These concepts comprise the foundation for the ensuing discussion and may be defined as follows: Function designates the special action of any part of a living organism that evolved because such action fostered survival or reproduction. An effect, on the other hand, is a mere by-product of a characteristic. Examples given in following sections will make the distinction clearer. I take the position here that an animal scans its environment with a set of senspry receptors, and among the stimuli it receives are a limited class emitted by other organisms and designed (naturally selected) for reception. Adherants of the notion that all forms of stimulus-reception involve communication are obliged to view virtually all behavior as communication, since all behavior involves the use of sense organs. Signals are defined as behavioral, physiological, or morphological characteristics fashioned or maintained by natural selection because they convey information to other organisms. Characteristics that have not been under selection to inform, or features of the physical environment that can be perceived, may be referred to with more neutral expressions such as information, cues, signs, or releasing stimuli. It follows that stimulus reception does not indicate whether a given case of information transmission involves signaling; the decision must be based, instead, on the nature of emission. Such a view is in accord with the proposals of Burghardt (11) and Lloyd (48).

Stream Drift as a Chronobiological Phenomenon in Running Water Ecosystems

Abstract: Waters (141) made a thorough review of stream drift, particularly with regard to insects, in the Annual Review of Entomology (141), providing an excellent survey of the historical development within this special field of running water ecology. This review gives an interpretation of the phenomenon of drift and its function in running water, as well as a presentation of the relevant literature up to 1972. The context in which I take up these problems is one concerning stream drift as a chronobiologic phenomenon. The starting point for this presentation consists of a number of independent studies, performed in various parts of the world, which have shown that stream drift occurs with a diel rhythmic pattern. This finding is based on the extensive investigation of Tanaka (125) in a Japanese stream, Waters (134) in Minnesota, Muller (75) in central Europe, Elliott (23, 25-27, 29, 31, 33) in the British Isles, and Levanidova & Levandov (63, 64) in eastern Siberia. The 24 hr cycle with its continuously changing light-dark periods (depending on the time of year and latitude) causes, directly or indirectly, variations in the physical and chemical factors in running water. It also governs the development and locomotory processes of unicellular algae and the development and behavior of various aquatic invertebrates (including insects) and fish. Stream drift and those activities that underlie it have been found to possess a time-regulated component in running water ecosystems. The above investigations, which have appeared in the last ten years, show that the invertebrates in running water are able to perceive the differentiated day and night length. The duration of activity is positively correlated to the length of the periods of light or darkness.

Closed Ecological Systems

Abstract: Abstract of EP0386578An ecological system including human occupants is substantially completely isolated from the earth's environment insofar as transfer of matter is concerned. The system is open insofar as energy and information are concerned. The closed system is maintained in balance by including a diversity of plants, animals, microorganisms and the like, which cooperate to close cycles of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. Intensive agriculture is practiced by the human occupants to provide balanced nutrition for themselves and for any domesticated animals and fish which may be included in the system. The soil layer in which agriculture is practiced is aerated for growth of soil microoganisms which can remove various noxious gases from the system. A wilderness module is also included with a broad variety of plants, animals and ecological niches. The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere in such a system may be controlled by varying the water applied to plants, particularly C4 grasses, for varying their growth rate. Such a system is under construction in Arizona.

Warfare in Ecological Perspective

Abstract: Is looking at warfare in an ecological perspective likely to lead to generalizations of broad scope and applicability, either about warfare itself or about the dynamics of social and ecological systems? The present review was undertaken with this as a principal question in mind.