Showing papers in "Child Development in 1973"
TL;DR: The role of play and modeling in the organization of constituents for task completion is explored and more evolved directed action is constructed of previously constructed sequences now organized into higherorder arts.
Abstract: BRUNER, JEROME S. Organization of Early Skilled Action. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 1-11. Early skill is dependent upon the initial arousal of an intention, specifying an end state, and containing minimal directions concerning means. Activated intention triggers constituent acts that are clumsily organized to achieve a desired end state, often with initial organization showing a preadapted pattern. Feedback shapes initially awkward patterns so that less attentional capacity is required. Further task analysis is made possible, and more evolved directed action is constructed of previously constructed sequences now organized into higherorder arts. The role of play and modeling in the organization of constituents for task completion is explored.
412Â citations
TL;DR: MCCALL and APPELBAUM as discussed by the authors consider several alternatives when heterogeneity of covariance exists, including nonparametric tests, randomization and matching procedures, Box and Greenhouse-Geisser corrections, and multivariate analysis.
Abstract: MCCALL, ROBERT B., and APPELBAUM, MARK I. Bias in the Analysis of Repeated-Measures Designs: Some Alternative Approaches. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 401-415. The conventional analysis of variance applied to designs in which each subject is measured repeatedly requires stringent assumptions regarding the variance-covariance (i.e., correlations among repeated measures) structure of the data. Violation of these assumptions results in too many rejections of the null hypothesis for the stated significance level. This paper considers several alternatives when heterogeneity of covariance exists, including nonparametric tests, randomization and matching procedures, Box and Greenhouse-Geisser corrections, and multivariate analysis. The presentation is from an applied rather than theoretical standpoint. Multivariate techniques that make no covariance assumptions and provide exact probability statements represent the most versatile solution.
394Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared speech addressed to children with speech addressed by an adult and found significant differences between the two groups in syntax and vocabularies of children and adults.
Abstract: PHILLIPS, JULIET R. Syntax and Vocabulary of Mothers' Speech to Young Children: Age and Sex Comparisons. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 182-185. This study compared speech addressed to children with speech addressed to an adult; 10 measures of syntax and vocabulary were used. In addition, comparisons were made of speech addressed to children of different ages (8, 18, and 28 months) and sexes. Significant differences between speech addressed to children and speech addressed to an adult were found in all measures. In 7 measures, significant differences were found between speech addressed to 18-month children and speech addressed to 28-month children. In general these findings obtain equally for separate samples of boys and girls.
331Â citations
TL;DR: Boys were more likely to receive several types of nurturant and instructional attention while participating appropriately in class activities and teachers gave girls increased attention when they were physically proximal, which they did not do for boys.
Abstract: SERBIN, LISA A.; O'LEARY, K. DANIEL; KENT, RONALD N.; and TONICK, ILLENE J. A Comparison of Teacher Response to the Preacademic and Problem Behavior of Boys and Girls. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 796-804. Differential social contingencies have been suggested as a possible developmental source of psychological sex differences which may result in behavioral and academic problems. The nature of teacher responses to problem and preacademic behavior of children in 15 preschool classes as a function of the sex of the child was examined. Frequencies of dependent and disruptive child behaviors and a variety of teacher behaviors were recorded. Teachers were more likely to respond when boys were aggressive than when girls were. They also used more loud reprimands when scolding boys. In response to dependent behaviors, teachers gave girls increased attention when they were physically proximal, which they did not do for boys. Teachers also used more directions and instructions when responding to solicitation by boys. Finally, boys were more likely to receive several types of nurturant and instructional attention while participating appropriately in class activities.
230Â citations
TL;DR: A stimulation program to enhance sensorimotor development was implemented for the first year of life of infants born to disadvantaged mothers and indicated greater developmental progress for the E fhan for the C group.
Abstract: SCARR-SALAPATEK, SANDRA, and WILLIAMS, MARGARET L. The Effects of Early Stimulation on Low-Birth-Weight Infants. CmHLD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 94-101. Infants born at low birth weights (< 1,800 g) to disadvantaged mothers are at developmental risk for both biological and social reasons. A stimulation program to enhance sensorimotor development was implemented for the first year of life. 30 consecutively born infants were alternately assigned to experimental (E) and control (C) groups. The E group received visual, tactile, and kinaesthetic stimulation during 6 weeks in the nursery. Weekly home visits to improve maternal care were made until the infants reached 12 months of age. Newborn tests at 4 weeks and Cattell IQ scores at 1 year indicated greater developmental progress for the E fhan for the C group.
217Â citations
TL;DR: This article found that 22 sessions of verbal interaction significantly facilitated syntax acquisition by 32to 40month-olds, in response to sentences of the child, adults in these sessions replied with recast sentences that maintained the same basic meaning but provided new syntactic information.
Abstract: NELSON, KEITH E.; CARSKADDON, GAYE; and BONVILLIAN, JOHN D. Syntax Acquisition: Impact of Experimental Variation in Adult Verbal Interaction with the Child. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 497-504. Previous work has provided only very limited evidence that adult language variations influence the child's concurrent acquisition of syntax. In the present study, 22 sessions of verbal interaction significantly facilitated syntax acquisition by 32to 40month-olds. In response to sentences of the child, Es in these sessions replied with recast sentences that maintained the same basic meaning but provided new syntactic information. Furthermore, a selective bias in these replies, toward use of new predicate information, was matched by selectively stronger facilitation in terms of verb measures.
209Â citations
TL;DR: Garrey et al. as mentioned in this paper found that early forms of social speech entail a surprising level of interpersonal understanding, and that these speech forms are amenable to systematic study, concluding that children in this age range are capable of genuinely social behavior.
Abstract: GARVEY, CATHERINE, and HOGAN, ROBERT. Social Speech and Social Interaction: Egocentrism Revisited. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 562-568. To study the development of social speech, 18 dyads of children (31/2-5) were videotaped in 15-minute play sessions. Behavior was coded in terms of the time children spent in mutual interaction, and speech was coded in terms of the degree to which utterances were adapted to the verbal or nonverbal behavior of the partner. The results indicated a high level of mutual responsiveness in both speech and behavior. The paper suggests that children in this age range are capable of genuinely social behavior; it concludes that early forms of social speech entail a surprising level of interpersonal understanding, and that these speech forms are amenable to systematic study.
182Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of intent and consequences on the moral judgments of three age groups of children (5--11 years) were measured using four stories combining positive and negative intentions and consequences, where subjects made their own judgments and attributed judgments to a story figure who had no access to intent information.
Abstract: COSTANZO, PHILIP R.; COIE, JOHN D.; GRUMET, JUDY F.; and FARNILL, DOUGLAS. A Reexamination of the Effects of Intent and Consequence on Children's Moral Judgments. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 154-161. Effects of intent and consequences on the moral judgments of 3 age groups of children (5--11 years) were measured using 4 stories combining positive and negative intentions and consequences. Subjects made their own judgments and attributed judgments to a story figure who had no access to intent information. The use of intention increased linearly with age for judgments of actors producing negative consequences, while all age groups tended to use intent cues for the positive-consequence stories. Social perspective taking, measured by own versus other rating differences, increased with age for both positiveand negative-consequence conditions. Results were compared with the existing literature on moral judgment which has utilized only negative-consequence paradigms. A socialization explanation was advanced for the differential findings on positive and negative consequences. The social perspectivism findings were discussed in terms of the relationship between role taking and moral judgment skills.
176Â citations
TL;DR: The mothers of 93 sets of same-sexed twins completed questionnaires on activity level and zygosity in their twins, suggesting a substantial heritable component to activity level.
Abstract: WILLERMAN, LEE. Activity Level and Hyperactivity in Twins. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 288-293. The mothers of 93 sets of same-sexed twins completed questionnaires on activity level and zygosity in their twins. Intraclass correlations for activity level in monozygotic twins (MZs) were substantially higher than for dizygotic twins (DZs). Among twin sets where at least 1 member scored in the hyperactive range on the questionnaire (upper 20%), MZ twins showed a high correlation for activity level while DZ twins showed no correlation. The results were interpreted as suggesting a substantial heritable component to activity level.
162Â citations
TL;DR: The results supported the predictions that young children would have difficulty performing the actions; that somewhat older children would perform the actions but their gestural representations of the objects would entail the use of a body part as the object; and finally, that older children will represent objects symbolically.
Abstract: OVERTON, WILLIS F., and JACKSON, JOSEPH P. The Representation of Imagined Objects in Action Sequences: A Developmental Study. CHmD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 309-314. 3-, 4-, 6-, and 8-year-old children were asked to pretend they were using various common objects in action sequences appropriate to the objects. The results supported the predictions that young children would have difficulty performing the actions; that somewhat older children would perform the actions but their gestural representations of the objects would entail the use of a body part as the object; and finally, that older children would represent objects symbolically. In addition, the results indicated action sequences directed toward the self were symbolically mediated earlier than sequences directed toward the external world.
151Â citations
TL;DR: TAPLIN et al. as discussed by the authors used a laboratory analogue of naturalistic observation to examine the relationship of observer drift to instructional set and experimenter status and found a significant decrease in observer reliability coinciding with the shift from training to data collection.
Abstract: TAPLIN, PAUL S., and REID, JOHN B. Effects of Instructional Set and Experimenter Influence on Observer Reliability. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 547-554. A laboratory analogue of naturalistic observation was used to examine the relationship of observer drift to instructional set and experimenter status. 3 instructional sets (no check, random check, and spot check) and 2 levels of experimenter status were studied. Results indicated a highly significant decrease in observer reliability coinciding with the shift from training to data collection. This performance decrement was observed in all 3 instructional set conditions. Within the spot-check condition, reliability on spot-check days was found to be significantly greater than mean reliability immediately before and after spot checks. Further results revealed that observers trained by the high-status experimenter performed less reliably than observers trained by the other 2 experimenters. The possible implications of these results for future observational research and suggestions for minimizing observer drift are discussed.
TL;DR: RUBIN et al. as mentioned in this paper found that cognitive egocentrism decreased significantly with age on all measures of communicative, cognitive (private speech), role-taking, and spatial egocentricity.
Abstract: RUBIN, KENNETH H. Egocentrism in Childhood: A Unitary Construct? CHLD DEVELOPMENT, 44, 102-110. 10 boys and 10 girls in each of grades kindergarten, 2, 4, and 6 were individually tested on measures of communicative, cognitive (private speech), role-taking, and spatial egocentrism. Measures of conservation skills, popularity, and intelligence were also taken. Egocentrism decreased significantly with age on all measures. A factor analysis revealed a single "decentration" factor, reflecting the high interrelationships among role-taking, communicative, and spatial egocentrism, as well as conservation. Mental and chronological age also loaded significantly on the primary factor, suggesting that experience accrued with age facilitates decentration. Both theoretical and methodological difficulties were cited as reasons for the failure of cognitive egocentrism to load on the decentration factor.
TL;DR: In this paper, a simple referential communication task was administered to 3-5-year-old Ss. Each S communicated either to an E who apparently could not see the referents that S was referring to or to E who could see the E. The Ss communicating to an apparently blind E were far more explicit verbally than those communicating to a E who can see.
Abstract: MARATSOS, MICHAEL P. Nonegocentric Communication Abilities in Preschool Children. CHLD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 697-700. A very simple referential communication task was administered to 3-5-year-old Ss. Each S communicated either to an E who apparently could not see the referents that S was referring to or to an E who could see the referents. The Ss communicating to an apparently blind E were far more explicit verbally than those communicating to an E who could see.
TL;DR: Both experiments provide evidence that significant differences exist between dyslexics and normals at early stages of visual information processing in Dyslexics.
Abstract: STANLEY, GORDON, and HALL, RODNEY. Short-Term Visual Information Processing in Dyslexics. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 841-844. 2 measures of visual information processing were compared for dyslexic and control samples of children. With the first measure 2 parts of a stimulus were exposed sequentially for 20 msec each at increasing interstimulus intervals (ISIs). Both separation and identification thresholds were longer for dyslexics than normals. With the second measure letters presented for 20 msec were masked by dots, the interstimulus interval between the letter and masker being incremented over trials. Dyslexics required longer ISIs than controls for correct identification of the letter. This difference was greater when the letters were visually confusable. Both experiments provide evidence that significant differences exist between dyslexics and normals at early stages of visual information processing.
TL;DR: The game of "Simon Says" was played individually with children in preschool, kindergarten, first grade, and third grade errors decreased significantly with grade First graders (average age 7) made substantial numbers of errors, indicating that "Simon says" is more difficult than other tasks used to study children's impulsive errors as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: STROMMEN, ELLEN A Verbal Self-Regulation in a Children's Game: Impulsive Errors on "Simon Says" CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 849-853 The game of "Simon Says" was played individually with children in preschool, kindergarten, first grade, and third grade Errors decreased significantly with grade First graders (average age 7) made substantial numbers of errors, indicating that "Simon Says" is more difficult than other tasks used to study children's impulsive errors and that estimates of ages at which children are able to inhibit impulsive responding depend on the demands of the task or situation Third graders, first graders, and kindergarten girls improved with practice; kindergarten boys and preschoolers did not
TL;DR: Wetherford et al. as discussed by the authors examined infant preferences for novel and familiar visual stimuli and found that older infants preferred novel patterns, while younger infants preferred familiar ones, and that infants were repeatedly shown 1 pattern with novel patterns interspersed at 3 intervals in the familiarization series.
Abstract: WETHERFORD, MARGARET J., and COHEN, LESLIE B. Developmental Changes in Infant Visual Preferences for Novelty and Familiarity. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 416-424. 2 experiments examined infant preferences for novel and familiar visual stimuli. In both, infants were repeatedly shown 1 pattern with novel patterns interspersed at 3 intervals in the familiarization series. In Experiment I infants 6-12 weeks of age were examined both longitudinally and cross-sectionally. Experiment II was a partial replication of Experiment I with 6-8-weekolds. Habituation to the familiar pattern occurred at 10-12 weeks but not at 6-8 weeks. Older Ss also preferred novel patterns, while younger Ss preferred familiar ones. Results from the cross-sectional design were clearer than from the longitudinal design. The findings support Hunt's (1963) 2-stage model of infant preferences.
TL;DR: RUBIN et al. as mentioned in this paper found that cognitive measures of communicative egocentrism and moral judgment were correlated with the incidence of altruistic behavior in both altruism conditions.
Abstract: RUBIN, KENNETH H., and SCHNEIDER, FRANK W. The Relationship between Moral Judgment, Egocentrism, and Altruistic Behavior. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 661-665. 55 7-year-old children were administered cognitive measures of communicative egocentrism and moral judgment and were provided with 2 opportunities to display altruistic behavior--(a) to donate candy to poor children and (b) to help a younger child complete a task. Success on the 2 cognitive measures was positively correlated with the incidence of altruistic behavior in both altruism conditions. With mental age partialled out the correlations between the cognitive measures and donating candy were significantly lower than the correlation between the cognitive measures and helping. The difference between the correlations was accounted for by the fact that only in the candy donation were there cues that helped the subject attend to the possibility of emitting an altruistic act. Finally, the communicative and moral judgment measures were significantly correlated.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of these training sequences on the development of a correspondence between children's verbal and nonverbal behaviors was examined in two experiments and it was found that the say-do sequence produced higher levels of correspondence than the do-say sequence.
Abstract: ISRAEL, ALLEN C., and O'LEARY, K. D. Developing Correspondence between Children's Words and Deeds. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 575-581. Preschool children in a free-play situation experienced 1 of 2 training sequences: saying then doing, or doing then saying. The effect of these training sequences on the development of a correspondence between children's verbal and nonverbal behaviors was examined in 2 experiments. Increases in correspondence were found to be a function of the reinforcement contingency and the sequence of behaviors. Reinforcers contingent upon verbal behavior were not sufficient to produce increases in both verbal and nonverbal behaviors (correspondence). Increased correspondence occurred when reinforcers were contingent upon both behaviors and with a say-do sequence. The do-say sequence produced high levels of correspondence only after previous say-do training. Experiment 2 examined the effects of reinforcing the 2 sequences without a portion of the training procedures included in experiment 1. Once again the say-do sequence produced higher levels of correspondence. The results are discussed in terms of the development of verbal self-control and implications for intervention programs.
TL;DR: The results suggest that previously published findings indicating that young children are unresponsive to issues of intentionality are methodological artifacts of the verbal assessment procedures employed.
Abstract: CHANDLER, MICHAEL J.; GREENSPAN, STEPHEN; & BARENBOIM, CARL. Judgments of Intentionality in Response to Videotaped and Verbally Presented Moral Dilemmas: The Medium Is the Message. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 315-320. 80 7-year-olds were presented 2 moral dilemmas, both of which were prepared in the traditional verbal format and also produced on videotape using children as actors. Each S was exposed to 1 verbal and 1 videotaped story. Moral judgments made in response to the verbal dilemmas were largely based on consequences, supporting previous studies using similar methods. Responses to the videotaped dilemmas were, however, largely based on intentions, suggesting that the actual age of onset of intentional judgments is considerably earlier than had been previously assumed. These results suggest that previously published findings indicating that young children are unresponsive to issues of intentionality are methodological artifacts of the verbal assessment procedures employed.
TL;DR: Shultz et al. as discussed by the authors conducted a study to assess the ability of children of 6, 9, 12, and 15 years of age to detect various types of linguistic ambiguity.
Abstract: SHULTZ, THOMAS R., and PILON, ROBERT. Development of the Ability to Detect Linguistic Ambiguity. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 728-733. This study was conducted to assess the ability of children of 6, 9, 12, and 15 years of age to detect various types of linguistic ambiguity. The results suggested that the ability to detect linguistic ambiguity develops at different rates depending on the type of ambiguity. The ability to detect phonological ambiguity appeared first, with the largest improvement occurring between 6 and 9 years. Second to appear was the detection of lexical ambiguity, which exhibited a linear increase with age. Detection of surfaceand deep-structure ambiguities did not occur until age 12.
TL;DR: A hypothesis of proactive interference in short-term memory is proposed to explain the above results and other findings reported in the literature.
Abstract: HARRIS, P. L. Perseverative Errors in Search by Young Infants. CImLD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 28-33. 3 experiments are presented which examine the ability of 10-month-old infants to search in a new hiding place. The experiments showed that infants of this age can search correctly, but that errors are more likely if a delay is introduced and if cues previously associated with finding the object distract the infant after its disappearance into a new hiding place. A hypothesis of proactive interference in short-term memory is proposed to explain the above results and other findings reported in the literature.
TL;DR: In this article, Stewart et al. observed 6 mothers and their own 3-year-old sons from 7 ethnic groups teaching preschool-age children a sorting and a motor-skill game.
Abstract: STEWARD, MARGARET, and STEWARD, DAVID. The Observation of Anglo-, Mexicanand ChineseAmerican Mothers Teaching Their Young Sons. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 329-337. Parents were observed teaching preschool-age children a sorting and a motor-skill game. 6 mothers and their own 3-year-old sons from 7 ethnic groups participated: middle-class Anglo-American (AAm), lower-class Anglo-American (AA1), English-speaking Mexican-American (MAe), bilingual Mexican-American (MAb), Spanish-Speaking Mexican-American (MA,), Englishspeaking Chinese-American (CAe), and Chinese-speaking Chinese-American (CA). Interaction was videotaped. Coders were selected from each ethnic group. Data were coded using a parent interaction code which analyzed programmatic variables: total time, input, and pacing; and' teaching-loop variables: alert, format, child response, and feedback. The single best predictor of maternal teaching, or child response, was ethnicity. Children in this study experienced different learning environments which may result in different skills and expectations brought by them into the classroom.
TL;DR: The data suggest that Ss in the same grade seek equally efficient information and appear to respond appropriately to information acquired in the 20-questions game.
Abstract: AULT, RUTH L. Problem-solving Strategies of Reflective, Impulsive, Fast-accurate, and Slowinaccurate Children. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 259-266. First-, third-, and fifth-grade Ss classified as impulsive on the Matching Familiar Figures test asked questions in a 20-questions game indicative of less mature cognitive strategies than Ss classified as reflective and fastaccurate. Younger reflective Ss achieved scores on the 20-questions game equivalent to those of older impulsive Ss, indicating equivalence on this cognitive development measure. Ordering the array aided the production of constraint-seeking questions for first and third graders, but not for fifth graders. Reflective and impulsive Ss were not differentially responsive to this manipulation, and no groups were aided by removing pictures from the array. The data suggest that Ss in the same grade seek equally efficient information and appear to respond appropriately to information acquired in the 20-questions game.
TL;DR: Age-trend analyses showed an overall tendency for normal 5-10year-old boys to show less cross-gender behavior (feminine behavior) with increasing age; however, specific cross- gender behaviors had low frequencies even at the youngest ages.
Abstract: BATES, JOHN E.; BENTLER, P. M.; and THOMPSON, SPENCER K. Measurement of Deviant Gender Development in Boys. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 591-598. In response to the need for instruments to measure extreme ranges of childhood gender development, for empirical and diagnostic purposes, a parent-report Gender Behavior Inventory for Boys was developed. This inventory was factor analyzed (Study I) and validated (Study II) using normal and extremely effeminate 5-12-year-old boys. 4 factors-feminine behavior, extraversion, behavior disturbance, and mother's boy--emerged. Highly significant mean differences were obtained between a clinical sample of gender-problem referrals and normal controls on 3 of the 4 factors: the gender-problem boys were more effeminate and less extraverted, and showed more behavior disturbances. Within the range-restricted clinical sample, clinical judgments of severity of gender disturbance correlated moderately well only with the feminine behavior factor. Age-trend analyses (Study III) showed an overall tendency for normal 5-10year-old boys to show less cross-gender behavior (feminine behavior) with increasing age; however, specific cross-gender behaviors had low frequencies even at the youngest ages.
TL;DR: In a fixed foreperiod reaction-time task boys referred for "special learning disability" showed significantly greater variability of reaction time and significantly less heart rate deceleration prior to the reaction stimulus than age-matched control children, and a double blind experiment to assess the effects of stimulant medication showed significant changes.
Abstract: SROUFE, L. ALAN; SONIES, BARBARA C.; WEST, WINIFRE) D.; and WRIGHT, FRANCIS S. Anticipatory Heart Rate Deceleration and Reaction Time in Children with and without Referral for Learning Disability. CHmID DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 267-273. In a fixed foreperiod reaction-time task boys referred for "special learning disability" showed significantly greater variability of reaction time and significantly less heart rate deceleration prior to the reaction stimulus than age-matched control children. Subsequently, in a double blind experiment to assess the effects of stimulant medication, clinic children given methylphenidate showed significantly greater change on the cardiac deceleration measure than the children given placebo. The drug also shortened median reaction time significantly more than did placebo, even though clinic and control children were not initially different on this measure. Finally, only the control children and the clinic children given the stimulant drug showed a significant correlation between heart rate deceleration and response latency. These results were interpreted as supportive of anticipatory heart rate deceleration and response latency as indices of maintenance of set, an aspect of attention.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the role-taking abilities of children in three Norwegian social settings: a farm community, a village, and a town, where the primary difference among the three samples was the amount of verbal and social interaction which the children engaged in with parents and peers.
Abstract: HOLLOS, MARIDA, and COWAN, PHILIP A. Social Isolation and Cognitive Development: Logical Operations and Role-taking Abilities in Three Norwegian Social Settings. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 630-641. 9 measures of conservation, classification, and role taking were administered to children in 3 social settings in rural Norway-a farm community, a village, and a town. The primary difference among the 3 samples was the amount of verbal and social interaction which the children engaged in with parents and peers. In each setting 48 male and female children, equal numbers of 7-, 8-, and 9-year-olds were tested; the 7-yearolds were preschoolers. Factor analysis yielded 2 main factors-a logical operations factor involving all classification and conservation tests and a role-taking factor involving all multiple perspective and communications tests. Age effects were prominent in logical operations, while setting effects predominated in role taking. Farm children, the most socially isolated, received relatively low scores on role-taking tasks, but performed as well or better than village and town children on logical operations. Contrary to Bruner's hypothesis, language stimulation and schooling do not seem to play a major role in the development of logical operations.
TL;DR: For example, Mohan et al. as discussed by the authors found that third and fifth graders were significantly more likely than first graders to predict that the categorized sets would be easier to remember.
Abstract: MOYNAHAN, EILEEN D. The Development of Knowledge concerning the Effect of Categorization upon Free Recall. CmiD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 238-246. First, third, and fifth graders predicted the relative ease of recalling sets of categorized items versus sets of noncategorized items. Third and fifth graders were significantly more likely than first graders to predict that the categorized sets would be easier to remember. Similar grade effects were obtained when the Ss' explanations were considered. Grade differences in predictions could not be attributed to the younger childrens' failure to detect the categories or to the facilitative effect of categorization on recall being any weaker for the younger children. Ss who had performed either an easier prediction task or a recall task involving the sets of categorized and noncategorized items before receiving the categorization-prediction task performed better on the categorizationprediction task than did Ss with no task experience before the categorization-prediction task. The effect of prior recall experience, however, was significant only when the explanation scores were considered. Prior experience seeing and naming the sets of categorized and noncategorized items had no effect on performance on the categorization-prediction task.
TL;DR: Haleverson et al. as discussed by the authors reported relations between a simple and reliable activity recorder, observer data of vigorous play in outdoor and indoor settings, and teachers' ratings for both sexes.
Abstract: HALVERSON, CHARLES F., JR., and WALDROP, MARY F. The Relations of Mechanically Recorded Activity Level to Varieties of Preschool Play Behavior. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 678-681. Vigorous play activity has consistently been identified as a general dimension of early play behavior. Many studies have used ratings rather than objective measures of activity, and the generality of activity in such studies may be partly artifactual. This study reported relations between a simple and reliable activity recorder, observer data of vigorous play in outdoor and indoor settings, and teachers' ratings. The recorder was highly related to other objective data for both sexes outdoors, but only males showed generality of play across situations. Recorder data showed males more active than females and were related to nearly all teachers' ratings for both sexes.
TL;DR: Markman et al. as discussed by the authors suggested that the acceptability of the superordinate name as a label for the subordinate classes might also contribute to the difficulty of the Piagetian class-inclusion question.
Abstract: MARKMAN, ELLEN. The Facilitation of Part-Whole Comparisons by Use of the Collective Noun "Family." CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 837-840. Previous investigators have suggested various perceptual and linguistic factors that might contribute to the difficulty of the Piagetian class-inclusion question. It was suggested in the present study that the acceptability of the superordinate name as a label for the subordinate classes might also contribute to the difficulty of the class-inclusion question. This hypothesis was tested by asking first-grade children to make part-whole comparisons with pictures of "families" as stimuli. Families were used as stimuli because the subparts of the family (parents and children) cannot be labeled "family." The results indicate that it is easier to make part-whole comparisons for the family relation than for the class-inclusion relation.