Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 1994"

Defining teacher empowerment

Abstract: Problematic aspects of teachers' work have been noted in much of the literature on teaching. Some of these problems have their roots in the historical development of the teaching profession, and others are a result of the bureaucratic structure of schools. The literature on teacher work life identifies three significant problems with teachers' work in traditional American schools: teachers are isolated from colleagues in most of their work; and teachers have not been significantly involved in many of the decisions that affect the nature of their work, particularly in decisions made outside the classroom or the school. Empowerment has been defined as a process whereby school participants develop the competence to take charge of their own growth and resolve their own problems. Empowered individuals believe they have the skills and knowledge to act on a situation and improve it. Empowered schools are organizations that create opportunities for competence to be developed and displayed. Frymier (1987, p.9) states that "In any attempt to improve education, teachers are central." Rosenholtz (1991) suggests that ". . . the culture of a school changes significantly when experienced teachers stop functioning in isolation and start solving problems related to students' learning collectively." In any attempt to improve schools, attention must be given to roles in decision making and increased opportunities for meaningful, collective participation in the critical areas of activity in the organization which focus on organizational goals. Rappaport and his colleagues have described empowerment as a construct that tie personal competencies and abilities to environments that provide opportunities for choice and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies (Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988). Dunst (1991) has suggested that empowerment consists of two issues: (1) enabling experiences, provided within an organization that fosters autonomy, choice, control, and responsibility, which 2) allow the individual to display existing competencies as well as learn new competencies that support an strengthen functioning. School restructuring has, as one of its components, the empowerment of teachers, administrators, and students (Murphy & Evertson, 1990; Short et al, 1991). In fact, the restructuring paradigm of Murphy and Evertson includes empowerment as an integral part of reform. There are six empirically-derived set of dimensions of teacher empowerment that help define the construct and broaden the dialogue beyond the rhetoric of empowerment. These dimensions were derived from research in the "The Empowered School District Project," conducted on school empowerment in nine school districts across the country from 1989 to 1992. What are the Dimensions of Teacher Empowerment? Teacher empowerment is a complex construct. While empowerment generally is associated with site-based management and shared decision making, research in the "Empowered School District Project" revealed that the underlying dimensions of the construct are varied and informative. The six dimensions of teacher empowerment found in the study include the following: Involvement in decision making, teacher impact, teacher status, autonomy, opportunities for professiona development, and teacher self-efficacy. Decision Making This dimensions of empowerment relates to the participation of teachers in critical decisions that directly affect their work. In many cases, this means participation in and responsibility for decisions involving budgets, teacher selection, scheduling, curriculum, and other programmatic areas. Providing teachers with a significant role in school decision making is a key element in empowerment. Teachers gain the opportunity to increase control over their work environment. However, for teacher involvement in decision making to happen, teachers must believe that their involvement is genuine and that their opinion has critical impact in the outcome of the decision (Short & Greet, 1989). …

Exploring the Links among Teacher Empowerment, Leader Power, and Conflict

Abstract: Teacher empowerment has become a focus of educational reform, leadership models and teaching effectiveness Responding to the lead of business and industry, educational planners and policy makers are assuming that commercial productivit issues are applicable to educational productivity Business organizations have found that empowered workers contribute more to the profit motives of the company at less cost Educational leaders faced with similar productivity concerns and cost constraints are also exploring empowerment strategies for their personnel The main force driving the empowerment movement in education is teacher effectiveness The assumption is that teachers who design and control their educational services and are free from a subordinating school administration ar more effective than teachers who fell alienated and powerless (Kanungo, 1992) When teachers are more effective, student achievement, responsiveness to studen conflict, teacher satisfaction, and the school environment improves Productivity increases as schools are expected to do more with less The connection between the school's environment including teacher attitudes, an the successful attainment of its mission (Ellis, 1988), can be affected adversely if certain factors, eg, the amounts and types of conflict and the successful or unsuccessful management of that conflict, impinge upon that environment In addition, leader use of power to influence teacher action can impact teacher commitment (Rahim, 1989) Fairman and Clark (1983), in their assessment of conflict's toll upon school climate, suggested that "The greatest problem that it [conflict] presents is interference with the establishment and maintenance of other priorities within the organization" However, it is not known if conflict and principal use of power impact teachers' perceptions of empowerment Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the nature of the relationship between leader power and amount of conflict with teachers' perception of their empowerment The influence of age, race, and principal gender on teacher empowerment was also analyzed Conceptual Framework Empowerment The interest in empowerment in education has sprung from business and industria efforts to improve productivity Kanungo (1992) cited alienation at work "as th most pervasive phenomenon of the post-industrial society and management in both the private and public sectors are engaged in a constant struggle against it fo their own survival" Alienated workers are apathetic, frustrated, and uninvolve with their jobs Businesses that can counter worker alienation with empowerment plans will improve their position to compete with firms who have solved this problem The principal strategy is to replace authority based management with participative management Contemporary educational trends have incorporated empowerment strategies as a means to improve school effectiveness The principle is that those who are closest to teaching should be making the decisions about teaching Terms such a site-based management, teacher empowerment, and local control have filled the literature as industrial models have been adapted to educational settings Short & Rinehart (19920 identified six underlying dimensions of empowerment: (1 involvement in decision making, (2) teacher impact, (3) teacher status, (4) autonomy, (5) opportunities for professional development, and (6) teacher self-efficacy Decision Making This dimension of empowerment relates to the participation of teachers in critical decisions that directly affect their work Providing teachers with a significant role in school decision making is a key element in empowerment in that teachers gain the opportunity to increase control over their work environment Impact Impact refers to teachers' perceptions that they have an effect and influence o school life Ashton and Webb (1986) posit that teachers' self-esteem grows when they feel that they are doing something worthwhile, that they are doing it in a competent manner, and that they are recognized for their accomplishments …

The relationship between school size, student teacher ratio and school efficiency

Abstract: Economy of scale is becoming of more concern in the financing of school districts. The relationship between school size and efficiency appears to be dependent on whether the schools are relatively small or relatively large (Butler and Monk, 1985). Increasing school size may or may not lead to increase achievement. Fowler and Walberg (1991) found a negative relationship between school size and some educational outcomes among New Jersey school districts. Increasing the size of small schools may make them more economically efficient. But, when schools become too large there is also a tendency for the schools to become economically inefficient. The consolidation of smaller districts in order to increase school size has bee the trend for many years. Ornstein (1989) points out that the consequences of the consolidation efforts have lead to controversy. Schools are very complex social and economic organizations. From a social point of view as schools get larger there appears to be a decline in the individual participation of parents and students in school affairs (Green and Stevens, 1988). The effect of school size on achievement may be different for variations in size of small schools as compared to variations in size of relatively large schools. Walberg and Fowler (1987) emphasize the need to distinguish between spending efficiency and production efficiency. Approximately half of a school districts budget is spent on teacher salaries. Hence a schools spending efficiency is related to the student teacher ratio. Student teacher ratio is a primary factor in economy of scale (Tholkes, 1991). Production efficiency is concerned with student achievement relative to the consumption of school resources. A major proportion of school resources is reflected in the size of the teaching staff. Rather than look at the relationship between school size and efficiency directly, this study considers the intermediate variable of student teacher ratio in relation to school size. The second part of the investigation explores the relationship between S/T ratio and school efficiency. Teacher salaries as a function of S/T ratio are considered as an indicator of spending efficiency. Th third issue in the study is concerned with the relationship of S/T ratio and student achievement in terms of production efficiency. Sample School Districts In order to study the relationship between elementary and secondary student teacher ratios it was necessary to have a sample of school districts with a consistent grade level organization. There are many different grade level organizations employed in the 453 Missouri school districts. Some districts hav a K-8, 9-12 organization. There is a larger group of school districts with either junior high schools or middle schools. The dominate grade level organization is K-6, 7-12 which is employed in 226 of the Missouri school districts. The K-6, 7-12 organization allows the most flexibility in teacher assignments within low enrollment districts. Because of the high correlation between secondary enrollment and student teacher ratio the districts were divided into five enrollment groups based upon their 7-12 enrollments. A random sample of twelve schools was selected for each of the five secondary enrollment groups. By restricting the sample of districts to the K-6, 7-12 organization th findings of this study are limited to considering the economy of scale issue fo small school districts. Student Teacher Ratio as a Function of School Enrollment Table 1 contains the means and standard deviations for the elementary and secondary student teacher ratios for the sample schools. S/T ratio is defined t be the number of pupils enrolled in September divided by the number of teachers counselors and librarians. The average class size is a little larger than the S/T ratio. The size of the standard deviations indicate that there is a large amount of variation in the S/T rations within the enrollment groups. …

Enhancing Student Motivation: Make Learning Interesting and Relevant

Abstract: Student motivation is a major problem in classrooms. Many children are bored, inattentive, and unable to see much connection between schoolwork and their lives outside classrooms. Their boredom diminishes attention, lowers achievement, and is a likely reason for dropping out of school. How serious is the problem? A survey of 25,000 eighth-graders found that about half claimed that they were bored in school half or most of the time (Rothman, 1990). Furthermore, numerous investigators (e.g., Goodlad, 1984; Sirotnik, 1983) have found that student engagement in academic activities is of poor quality. Therefore, teachers need strategies to reduce student boredom and enhance student motivation. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with four strategies to make learning interesting and relevant. This approach to enhancing student motivation is designed to help students value participation in learning activities. An additional purpose is to help teachers develop a better understanding of student motivation. For teachers to be professionals, they need to know both what is effective and why it is effective. The research on student motivation indicates that most approaches, including the present one, evolved from expectancy-value theory. According to this theory, the intensity of motivation is determined jointly by the learner's expectancy for success and by the incentive value of the goal. It is assumed that no effort will be invested in a learning activity if either factor is missing entirely. This theory suggests that students can gain success if they apply reasonable effort and appreciate the value of learning activities. Motivation theorists and researchers have devoted considerably less attention to the value component of this theory than to the expectancy component. The value factor merits attention, because a student who does not value an outcome is unlikely to expend much effort regardless of expectancies for success. Therefore, in this article I claim that motivation is tied to the belief that learning must be interesting and relevant, and therefore, of value. To begin our discussion, let us consider two students named Joel and Rebecca. Both children entered kindergarten excited about learning. They were inquisitive and eager to undertake any assignment. A few years later, they are bored. Joel is inattentive during most learning activities, his enthusiasm for learning is fading, and his performance continues to suffer. When he does put forth effort, he lacks strategies to monitor his own work. Finally, he is more focused on completing assignments than on ensuring he understand what he is supposed to be learning. Rebecca is also losing her enthusiasm for learning. She is unable to see how learning in the classroom connects to her life away from school or to some future aspect of her life. She wonders what's in it for her. When she does try, she finds the work unchallenging. She wants to assume some control in her learning program, but the teacher does not want to relinquish control. The teacher needs strategies to establish the relevance of learning for Rebecca, and she needs strategies to stimulate Joel's curiosity. Motivational Strategies to Make Learning Interesting and Relevant A review of the research on motivational strategies showed that teachers can design learning activities in more stimulating and valuable ways for children like Joel and Rebecca. Teachers may capitalize on four sources of motivation -- student curiosity, challenge of the assignment, relevance of the content, and student sense of control. The following strategies use these sources to make learning more interesting and relevant for students. Stimulate Curiosity by Asking Thought-Provoking Questions Curiosity is a condition of aroused uncertainty that exists when there is a gap between a given and desired state of knowledge (Berlyne, 1960). If a teacher presents new or different information from that which students already know, this causes a discrepancy in their thinking. …

The Status of Teacher Preservice Preparation for Parent Involvement: A National Study

Abstract: A National Study Over the past decade, research articles and position statements have consistently supported parent involvement in the education process. Research has found that children perform better academically when their parents are involved (Coleman, 1991; Comer, 1988; Goodlad, 1984; Henderson, 1988; Levin, 1989). Although parents and educators may disagree on what the parental role should be (Cavazos, 1989; Epstein & Dauber, 1989; Lindle, 1989), they do agree that parental involvement makes sense (Chavkin & Williams, 1988; Kearns & Doyle, 1988; Rich, 1988). But as Sharon Kagan (1985) has indicted, although recent research has increased the literature base regarding parent involvement, that base lacks definition, sustained commitment, and coordinated research efforts, due to the complexity of the topic. Not only is research on parent involvement somewhat fragmented, it fails to directly address preservice teacher preparation. What are teacher educators doing to prepare preservice teachers and administrators to involve parents in the educational enterprise? Studies have demonstrated the need for such training, but widespread solutions have not been explored or applied. Chavkin & Williams' (1988) and Becker & Epstein's (1982) seminal studies have indicated that teachers perceive themselves as being poorly prepared to involve parents in the education of the children in their classrooms. McBride (1990), in his study of the attitudes of 271 undergraduate preservice teachers regarding parental involvement, found that though these trainees showed attitudes that were generally positive about involving parents, they felt minimally prepared to actually implement parent involvement strategies in their future classrooms. Additional studies have confirmed that most educators perceive themselves as having had very little to no preservice training in specific ways to involve parents (Foster & Loven, 1992; Houston & Williamson, 1990; McAffee, 1987; Chavkin & Williams, 1985). Joseph Blase (1987), in his article on the politics of teaching, indicated that educators realize the importance of the teacher-parent relationship, but their preservice training has focussed mainly on subject matter and teaching strategies, with little preparation in the sociopolitical realities of the school setting, including effective interaction with parents. The previously cited research is lacking in that it focuses exclusively on the perceptions of the teachers themselves, ignoring the institutional curriculum which teaches parent involvement. And current research includes almost nothing about preservice training in parent involvement for administrators. Therefore, although research has explored the results of the lack of training for parent involvement in teacher preparation, little has been found concerning the curricular intent and orientation of the teacher preparation programs. The purpose of this study was to describe the national status of programs in preparing preservice teachers and administrators to involve parents in the education of school children. With the past decade's emphasis on parent involvement, it seems timely to consider this aspect of teacher preparation. Method Study Sample The researchers randomly selected colleges and universities from across the nation using the Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, published by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (1987). The sample included approximately half of the institutions listed. To assure a representative cross section, the authors stratified the selection by the three major Carnegie classifications: (1) research universities, (2) comprehensive colleges and universities, and (3) liberal arts colleges. From these three major categories, institutions were randomly selected from among those that have at least one department preparing either elementary or secondary teachers or administrators. …

The Effects of Education on Teacher Retention

Abstract: Literature on the study of teachers' career choices and retention rates is broad and encompassing. It can be found under several titles, including teacher attrition, teacher survival, teacher retention, teacher burnout, and teacher turnover. At times, there appears to be no clear taxonomy and often these terms may overlap. Authors often discuss teacher attrition or teacher survival in their articles as if teachers were leaving the profession. However, upon a close examination of their sample, it may be apparent that the authors are studying teacher turnover using a sample from a particular geographic location. An author may be using data from a state or local data bank and assume that if a teacher drops from the data bank from one year to the next, that the teacher may have left teaching (or did not "survive" teaching). In fact, the teacher may have moved to a neighboring district or state, he may be taking a break from teaching, or the district may have laid him off or terminated him. A few panel or longitudinal studies of teachers have been performed (Chapman & Hutcheson, 1982; and Chapman, 1984), but the samples in these studies have tended to be small and regional. However, results from at least one major national study, the National Longitudinal Study of 1972 performed by the Center for Educational Statistics, are interesting. The study found that 18.3% of experienced teachers (those who had taught for at least one year) had taken a break from teaching and re-entered it at some point in their careers (Heyns, 1988). A Review of Previous Studies Much of the previous research on the relationship of education to teacher retention has focused on some measure of academic achievement, such as scores on the National Teachers Examination, or on subject specialty, for instance the difference between physics teachers and English teachers. According to Schlechty & Vance (1981 & 1982), teaching attracts the less academically able students and, of those who begin teacher training, the more academically able students are more likely to change their majors from education to some other field. In the Schlechty and Vance articles, a longitudinal study of teachers in North Carolina found that the most academically proficient teachers, as measured by their scores on the National Teachers Examination are the most likely to leave teaching. Likewise, the least academically able students were the most likely to remain in the classroom. Schlechty and Vance admitted that the National Teachers Examination was not designed to measure academic ability but said that, "...significant correlations have been demonstrated between National Teachers Examination scores and established measures of academic ability, e.g., grade point averages, Graduate Record Examination scores, and Scholastic Aptitude Test scores" (Schlechty & Vance, 1981, p. 107). A much larger study by the Center for Educational Statistics found that: Former teachers in the aggregate scored slightly better than current teachers on SAT tests and on high school achievement tests in math and slightly worse on tests of verbal skill. These differences, however, are quite small and not significant. ... But current teachers tended to receive higher grades in both high school and college, and they were significantly more likely to have graduate training and advanced degrees. (Heyns, 1988, p. 28) It would appear that teachers who leave the profession may score higher on tests which correlate with measures of academic ability, but that teachers who stay in teaching score higher on what Schlechty and Vance refer to as "established measures" of academic ability such as grade point averages and degree attainment. A study by Murnane (1987) in Michigan found that chemistry teachers and physics teachers were more likely to leave after a few years than biology teachers and history teachers. Another study by Murnane, Singer, and Willett (1989) in North Carolina found that chemistry/physics, biology, and English teachers were more likely to leave teaching after only one or two years than mathematics and social studies teachers. …

The Imperative of Dealing with Dropouts: Theory, Practice and Reform

Abstract: Introduction Kronick & Hargis (1990) in Dropouts: Who Drops Out and Why and the Recommended Action, focus on curricular and non-curricular reasons why students drop out of school. This holistic approach is important for both a theoretical understandin of the problem, as well as, more effective delivery of services to this population. Now, what is this population? Research by Kronick & Hargis (1990) over three years has illuminated that first and foremost there is a problem of definition and secondly, there is a problem of operationalizing this definition once the definition has been established. What are some terms that have been used? How have they been confused? How are they different behaviorally? The most general term is probably at-risk. Kronick & Hargis (1990) found that school was not for me," was the main reason students stated as to why they left school. They also found that going to work was the main reason males gave for leaving school; whereas, being pregnant was the main reason females stated for leaving school. These behaviors were defined by Kronick & Hargis (1990) as describing dropouts. Dropouts were then operationalized into four groups. 1. Quiet dropouts These students are low achievers who have experienced continued failure through most of their time in school. Their reaction to chronic failure is not overt an attention getting. Their primary distinguishing characteristic is their stoicism. 2. Low achievers These students have experienced continued failure, but are unlike group one, because they react to failure in disruptive, annoying ways. This group avoids failure by avoiding school through truancy. Paradoxically, they are punished fo their behavior while in school and if they try to avoid school. 3. Non-Curricular The causes of the problems of this group reside outside of school. There may be problems of abuse, alcohol, drugs, poverty, health, and myriad others as to why the child doesn't learn and becomes truant and eventually quits school. The child cannot learn if he/she comes to school tired, hungry, and afraid. 4. Persisters This group has poor performance, but has compensatory behaviors to continue to attend school. These compensatory behaviors could include, athletics, art, or cheating. Some from this group may actually graduate but they are barely literate (Kronick & Hargis, 1990, pp 7-0). Another term that must be defined in this line of work is pushout. Pushouts are more generally curriculum casualties, victims of a locked-step curriculum. Thes are students who are forced to adapt to the curriculum rather than having the curriculum modified to meet their needs. Remember that a great many students stated as their main reason for leaving school that "school was not for me." (Kronick & Hargis, 1990) From this brief interlude, it is easy to see that just the definition of terms is difficult. At-risk, dropout, and pushout are all different, but this difficulty of definition should only make us work harder at defining the proble and beginning interventions. Why Worthy of Study Dealing with dropouts is a worthwhile undertaking because it may serve as a prevention for corrections, mental health and welfare. More obviously, keeping students in schools brings money to the school based on average daily attendanc and finally, if we don't keep students in school, our position in the international trade markets will drop. In fact, there has been a long history between the needs of commerce and public education in America. At the turn of the century, it was hardly important to have a high school degree to go to work At the turn of the next century, lack of a high school diploma may relegate one to impacted poverty. If students who are dropping out continue at the current rate (35 percent, in m opinion), they not only will be underemployed, which is personal tragedy, but they will also pay a great deal less in taxes over the course of a life time, which is significant loss to society. …

School empowerment through self-managing teams: leader behavior in developing self-managing work groups in schools

Abstract: Introduction The reform literature has advocated the empowerment of school staff (Frymier, 1987; Lightfoot, 1985; Maeroff, 1988; Massachusetts Department of Education, 1988). The assumption in the literature is that a positive work environment, brought about by school participants who are able to initiate and carry out new ideas, results in enhanced learning opportunities for students. In particular Maeroff (1989) cites key empowerment components for teachers to be increased status, highly developed knowledge base, and autonomy in decision making. For the purposes of this study, empowerment is defined as a process whereby school participants develop the competence to take charge of their own growth and resolve their own problems. Empowered individuals believe they have the skills and knowledge to act on a situation and improve it. Empowered schools ar organizations that create opportunities for competence to be developed and displayed. In searching for avenues for creating a collaborative school environment where teachers have the autonomy and competence to act to affect the outcomes of schooling and students become independent learners and problem-solvers, there i increasing interest in "self-managing work groups." Hackman (1986) characterize self-managing work groups as collections of people who take personal responsibility for the outcomes of their work, monitor their own performance, manage their own performance and seek ways to improve it, seek needed resources from the organization, and take the initiative to help others improve (Hackman, 1986). Tom Peters (1987, p. 282) states, "...there is no limit to what the average person can accomplish if thoroughly involved...this can most effectivel be tapped when people are gathered in human-scale groupings--that is, teams, or more precisely, self-managing teams." It is possible for schools to function with groupings that function as self-managing work teams. In a recent study, interdisciplinary teaching teams i a newly-opened middle school in the midwest were well on their way to functioning as self-managing work teams (Kasten, Short, & Jarmin, 1988). Other configurations such as departmental teams in secondary schools, cross-grade level teaching teams in elementary schools, small school faculties, and certain highly function school-based committees could be examples of self-managing work groups. By definition, self-managing work groups function with empowered team members (Hackman, 1986). Therefore, the concept has merit for efforts in school to empower all school participants. Objectives of the Study Objectives of this study were to identify empowered schools where participant groupings are functioning as self-managing teams or are well on the way to functioning at that level and to study the role of the principal in the growth and development of such groups. The primary research question guiding the study focused on identifying the attitudes, roles, and knowledge utilized by the principals in each empowered school that facilitate self-managing work groups t become self-evaluative, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcing? Conceptual Framework Frymier (1987, p. 9 states that "In any attempt to improve education, teachers are central." Rosenholtz (in press) suggests that "...the culture of a school changes significantly when experienced teachers top functioning in isolation an start solving problems related to students' learning collectively." In any attempt to improve schools, attention must be given to roles in decision making and increased opportunities for meaningful, collective participation in the critical areas of activity in the organization which focus on organizational goals. Empowerment Rappaport and his colleagues have described empowerment as a construct that tie personal competencies and abilities to environments that provide opportunities for choice and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies (Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988). …

Simplifying Handwriting Instruction for the 21st Century

Abstract: Schools in America have apportioned more and more content to their daily programs without extending the length of the school day and without eliminating the time spend addressing areas of past concern. In order to deliver the most effective educational program possible, curriculum needs to be examined periodically to eliminate those subjects which have outlived their usefulness. Increased use of communication-related technologies and a renewed emphasis on writing as meaningful communication has made this an appropriate time to reevaluate the teaching of handwriting or penmanship. The position advanced in this paper is that an emphasis should be placed on teaching a single form of orthography which is flexible enough to be perceived as similar to printed text and simple enough to last through the school years. Two of the manuscript styles discussed--D'Nealian and italics--allow for an easy transition to cursive should students, schools, or school districts opt to have a course, like calligraphy, to teach a cursive form at a later date. Similar positions regarding handwriting instruction have been taken in the past (Hildreth, 1960, 1963; Duvall, 1985; Moore, 1985). However, the practice of teaching both manuscript and cursive forms of handwriting is still widespread in today's schools and is still advanced in language arts textbooks as an integral part of preservice instruction (Norton, 1993). Why Teach Handwriting? Even with the expansion of communication-related technologies (e.g., pen-based interfaces, laptop computers, cordless telephones, telephone answering systems, and voice-activated tape recorders), handwriting instructions remains secure in the elementary curriculum. Handwriting is essential when individuals need to (a) quickly write short notes to friends, family, or business associates, (b) take notes at business meetings, (c) complete business or application forms, (d) write responses to school assignments, and (e) jot down reminders to themselves. Handwriting instruction is essential whenever one intends to communicate information effortlessly and legibly to an anticipated audience. In recent years, educators have recognized that all components of writing should focus on the process of communicating information. Graves (1978) states: Children want to write. They want to put down ideas, tell stories, record information, make signs, or act out experiences through their writing. They are more interested in their own marks on paper than the marks of others. But, for many, the handwriting struggle is so great that their important, self-centered objectives are lost. However, the current practice of teaching both manuscript and cursive forms in the primary grades appears to impede this function by complicating rather than simplifying the writing process. Historical Perspective It is clear that the prevalent handwriting style taught in schools has been simplified over the years in order to meet the needs of a constantly changing society. During the Renaissance, scribes imitated and modified Greek and Roman print styles. They did this, on the one hand, for pure artistic reasons and, on the other, to develop a handwriting style which could be used for such endeavors as bookkeeping and notetaking (Eaton, 1985). Penmanship was first included as part of the school curriculum only after the practice of turning writing over to these scribes became an obsolete practice. American colonists did not develop their own handwriting books. They relied on a number of copybooks designed by the English during the 17th century. These copybooks generally modeled highly ornate Roman letters and remained part of the school curriculum until after the American Revolution (Eaton, 1985). Beginning in the 1800s, standardized methods of handwriting were developed by Americans, dominated early by the Spencerian method. In 1848, Spencer published a penmanship style manual for teaching cursive entitled Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship. …

Counselor Educators' Perceptions of Satisfying and Dissatisfying Teaching Experiences

Abstract: Teaching, while being only one of the three traditional areas of faculty workload, is the most readily identifiable and enduring activity of university faculty. In a recent report by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (1989), over seventy percent of respondents stated that the most satisfying aspect of their work was teaching. Numerous studies (Bass, 1979; Manger & Excellent, 1990; among others) also document that teaching is a favorite activity of faculty. Faculty also report that teaching is the most stressful aspect of their workload (Carnegie Foundation, 1989; Austin & Pilat, 1990). In the 1989 Carnegie Foundation report, 44% of professors indicated their jobs were a source of considerable personal strain and that the amount of work was a major contributor to this strain. This is consistent with other researchers' findings on job satisfaction among college faculty (Concora & Clark, 1984; Wilie & Stechlein, 1982). Bass (1977) has noted that despite the many difficulties and frustrations in teaching, most faculty would not give it up. Despite the long hours, most would reduce their work week by less than five percent. He also identified four categories associated with difficulty in teaching: external conditions, local system conditions, technological conditions, and personal conditions. Personal conditions, those associated with the challenges of keeping abreast of the advances of knowledge in the field and maintaining self-awareness, are particularly challenging for faculty. Bass concludes by adding that while the external motivating factors provided by the system, such as policy, salary, the provision of the tools of teaching, and student progress are important, internal motivators such as the intrinsic satisfaction of teaching in areas of personal interest are equally important in the maintenance of faculty satisfaction. In a separate study, Bass (1981) found major differences between what is satisfying to academic and non-academic professionals. The products of university faculty's work are often intangible and more likely to be intrinsic. For academics the "intrinsic satisfaction takes on a more cognitive flavor". While other professionals require direct contact with clients or products, academic professionals derive satisfaction from teaching, seeing it as an art rather than an analyzable process. Holland (1973) has shown that job satisfaction is closely related to performing tasks in line with one's own interests. When faculty do not work within their areas of interest, they tend to pay a high price for performing their duties, in the form of work-related stress. When faculty are engaged in satisfying work, stress tends to diminish greatly. Teaching courses from which the faculty derived greater satisfaction could mitigate perceived stress (Holland, 1973). The present study sought to identify which elements, if any, differentiate between satisfying and dissatisfying courses among counselor educators. More specifically, this study sought to ascertain answers to the following questions: (1) what types of courses did faculty in counselor education departments find the most satisfying/dissatisfying to teach? and (2) what common themes occur regarding professor, student, structural, and reward related factors contributing to satisfaction/dissatisfaction? Method Participants A stratified random sample of counselor educators was selected from the current faculty listed in Hollis and Wantz's (1990) Counselor Preparation 1990-92, a national directory listing faculty teaching in the counseling discipline. In order to avoid responses based on little teaching experience, the sample was limited to full-time faculty holding associate or full professor rank. In total, 100 males and 100 females were selected. Instrument A survey was designed to collect demographic data and responses indicating (by content area) which courses are satisfying/dissatisfying (and for classes not taught, to project whether the course would be satisfying or dissatisfying). …

Student directed planning: fostering student ownership in learning

Abstract: Exploring ways to motivate young students to learn is a never ending quest for educators. Literature suggests that the need to motivate students today is greater than in the past. Teachers at all levels have made efforts to motivate students and to enhance their learning by developing incentive programs, fostering self concepts and by establishing positive classroom environments. Many of these efforts have met with some success and have given momentum to the exploration of additional strategies to motivate and enhance student learning. Student Directed Planning is a practical classroom strategy that trains students to take ownership for their learning. The primary goal of the strategy is to have young students become motivated to learn by including them in the HOW of the learning process. Though the Student Directed Planning strategy being presented here is new the basic concept of having students take responsibility for their own learning is not. Wang's (1980) Adaptive Learning Environment Program model was designed in part to foster personal responsibility and autonomy in students. The Learning-Team Model developed by William Glasser (1986) and the Cooperative Learning approach (Fogarty, 1990, Johnson, 1989, Kagan, 1989, 1990, and Slavin, 1989, 1990) also encourage students to take responsibility for their learning collectively. Student Directed Planning can be used by classroom teachers to enhance student learning by promoting self-ownership for learning. Student Directed Planning is not designed to replace teacher instruction. It is designed to support and reinforce student learning in the classroom. The strategy allows children to develop plans, individually or collectively for the purpose of learning essential skills and concepts their way. A major attribute of Student Directed Planning is that it provides students the opportunity to plan creative, student preferred activities to reinforce required skills. By doing so, the way in which students learn does not become routine. The routine of learning can create major motivational problems as suggested by Brophy (1986) "...a steady diet of routine and predictable lessons followed by routine and predictable assignments soon becomes 'the daily grind"'. Implementing the Student Directed Planning The Student Directed Planning program is implemented through four stages. The strategy can be used in any number of areas within the curriculum. It's use with spelling, vocabulary, conventional or creative writing, or learning math facts are a few possibilities. It is recommended that teachers use the strategy in only one area initially. The strategy, for example, could be used with spelling and then expanded to include other areas. It should be emphasized that children who require more structure or need extra assistance may need more time to move through the stages. Stage 1: Examples. Initially a number of varied activities are provided for students by the teacher as examples for their own future planning. To use spelling as an example, the teacher might select activities from the spelling text or other original activities for several weeks. The teacher includes activities that allow students to spell words, analyze spelling patterns, use spelling in writing activities and so fourth. Students are required to use these examples during the week. A set amount of time each day (5 to 10 minutes) is provided by the teacher. Students who are being introduced to an area for the first time might need additional weeks to develop a wider range of ideas. Stage 2: Student Selected-Teacher Activities. After a number of the teacher selected activities have been used by students, the teacher provides a number of options for students to choose from. Student task-sheets or planning guides can be used by students, to list their selected activities. On Monday students plan the activities they will use to learn the words, skill or concept. Time is provided each day for students to implement their plans. …

Education Majors: Why Teaching as a Career?

Abstract: Choosing a career is a challenging, exciting, and perhaps even a threatening task for most today. There are thousands of occupations in modern economies from which to select. (Lortie, 1985). Careers undreamed of forty years ago are realistic and growing possibilities for the remainder of this century and beyond, due to industrial and scientific advances in major fields, especially in computers, media, medical, and space technology. (Clement, 1985). Historically, career choices were made based primarily on the societal expectations attached to sex stereotyped roles. (Linton, 1936). However, presently, the educational opportunities available to most and the efforts put forth to attract minorities to the world of academia are creating an unlimited horizon in which to enter. Academically able women now see more career options open to them that in the past years were more exclusively male domains. (Tusin, 1985). Women are no longer forced to choose the conventional careers of teaching, nursing, and social work. A puzzling question comes to mind: Why would anyone choose to teach in this day and age when there is such a wide range of careers from which to choose and when becoming a teacher is being made tougher and tougher? Evidence of tougher certification requirements is widespread. State legislators are mandating teacher accountability by passing laws that make it more difficult to enter the teaching profession. Just fifteen years ago, in the State of Florida, the only requirement for becoming certified as an elementary school teacher was that the person hold a Bachelor's Degree in elementary education or a Bachelor's Degree and the certification component (12 credits in the area of professional education, 21 credits in the area of special methods of teaching in the elementary school, and a student teaching experience or three years of full time teaching experience.) Today, the following requirements have been added: a minimum score of 840 on the SAT, a 2.50 Grade Point Average, passing scores on the four sub-sections of the College Level Academic Skills Test (CLAST), passing scores on the Professional Section of the Florida Teacher Certification Examination (FTCE), passing scores on the Area of Specialization Sub-test of the FTCE, and successful completion of the Florida Professional Orientation Teacher Program (which requires a full year of teaching with full participation in an approved Florida Professional Orientation Program). In an effort to respond to the puzzling question posed in this article, a group of one hundred and two teacher education majors from four different counties, and who were completing their student teaching experience were surveyed. These students were asked to select from among a list of 23, their reasons for choosing teaching as a career. They were also given the opportunity to write in any other reasons which they deemed important and were not already included in the list provided to them. Further, they were asked to rank, in order of importance, their three most important reasons. The data were analyzed for the entire population (N=102) as well as for the following sub-groups: Elementary Education majors (N=52), Secondary Education majors (N=31), and Exceptional Education majors (N=19). The results were compared to those found by Dan Lortie in 1975. In his study, Lortie sought to investigate what had attracted inservice teachers to have chosen education as a career. He found five themes (reasons) that led the selections of the teachers surveyed. These were the Interpersonal theme (working with people), the Service theme, the Continuation theme (desire to remain in a school-like environment), the Material Benefits theme, and the Time Compatibility theme (same schedule as that of their own children). In this study only one of Lortie's five most frequently cited themes was favored. This was the Service theme. The Option, "I receive personal satisfaction out of seeing children learn" was chosen by 23% of the total population, making it the more frequent response. …

Teachers Respond to the Shared Decision-Making Opportunity

Abstract: Nationally, advocacy for shared decision-making has become a major focus of man school restructuring proposals (National Governors Association, 1989; Brickly and Westerberg, 1990; Combs, 1989; Lieberman, 1989; Kessler, 1992). This focus is both fashionable and controversial (Barth, 1988). Decision-making encompasse the steps taken in selecting among alternatives or choosing alternative courses of action. It requires assigning priorities and making choices (Keith and Girling, 1991). Typically, in schools, shared decision-making is perceived as involving administrators and teachers (and in some cases parents, other community members and students) and is also tied to teacher empowerment efforts (Sergiovanni, 1992). The theory behind shared decision-making is that those closest to students know best how to improve their schools and are in the best position to make and carry out decisions. The involvement of teachers in the decision-making process is not new, in fact Keith and Girling (1991) report that Chase (1952) found teachers who had an opportunity to participate regularly and actively in making school policies wer far more likely to exhibit enthusiasm and support for their system than teacher who reported limited opportunities to participate. Also, Flannery (1980), in examining job satisfaction in 22 Wisconsin high schools, found that those teachers who had the highest levels of expertise were particularly interested i working in schools where they could participate in school-level decision-making It is also clear that teachers do not want to participate in issues that they regard as either trivial or outside their areas of expertise (Flannery, 1980). Most of the recent restructuring literature favors shared decision-making. Some of the benefits touted include: facilitates making better decisions; encourages teachers to assume greater responsibility for what happens in a school (Keith and Girling, 1991); increases teacher job satisfaction (Flannery, 1980) minimizes sabotage of selected decisions (Keith and Girling, 1991); increases efficacy of those involved (March and Simon, 1985); and contributes to improved student achievement (Dismuke, 1993). Although shared decision-making and its benefits for restructuring are discusse in educational and community settings and written about in the education and business literature, there is as yet little evidence of its widespread implementation or effectiveness in schools engaged in restructuring. Also there is little evidence that teachers favor the idea or little discussion of what issues are or should be decided in such a manner. The University of Maine's College of Education has worked with several Maine schools for the purpose of restructuring, broadly defined as school improvement through significant reform A basic premise of these relationships has been that teachers should be involve in the decision-making process leading to restructuring. As part of that proces we have developed an instrument designed to assess teachers current perceptions and future aspirations for their decision-making roles. Decision-Making Instrument For development purposes in the restructuring process, a questionnaire Decision-Making Instrument was designed to address decision-making in four areas: * mission, goals and objectives as they're late to district, buildings and classrooms; * curriculum, from specific learning outcomes to the development of the curriculum documents: * communication, and how it relates to procedures to adequately involve staff students and community in school issues; * assessing student progress and deciding program of study requirements. These issues were chosen as important and illustrative components of education that reach beyond classroom instructional decisions traditionally expected of teachers. Teachers were asked to record how they perceived their current involvement in decision-making and how they would ideally like to be involved. …

Service Learning: A New Approach in Higher Education

Abstract: During the fall semester of 1990, the Southern University System became the first public institution in the state of Louisiana to require its students to render sixty clock hours of community volunteerism for graduation. It was envisioned that the community service activities performed by the more than 16,000 students would be laboratory extensions of the classroom, while at the same time addressing some of the serious social and educational problems which afflicted the State of Louisiana. The most compelling reason for establishing the community service requirement, however, was that the University believed that its graduates would now have a greater sensitivity for the needs of humanity and that they would view volunteerism as a legitimate means for addressing those needs. The university also believed that volunteerism in the minority community was an indispensable activity in creating a society in which the quality of life is improved. The fact that our public university took a futuristic approach in 1990 by making service learning an integral component of the academic program is unique in higher education. In 1983 the Alliance for Service learning set standards that helped to define the framework for service learning. These standards, based on a combined knowledge of practice and expertise ultimately gave impetus to the development of service learning programs throughout the country. However, the movement did not become a nationally recognizable one until 1992. By that time this university had established the Center for Service Learning at the main campus in Baton Rouge. Because the university's mission stressed teaching, research and service, the Center for Service Learning became a means by which the university could implement innovative ways to render service to the community. Following program approval, eighty service agencies were identified within the surrounding neighborhood of which students could be assigned for service. More than 2,000 students have performed community service in the areas of health promotion, nutrition counseling, crisis intervention, financial advisement, neighborhood redevelopment, drug education, parenting skills and tutoring. From the recipient side, persons were taught to read and write at the six grade level and beyond. Students helped to create behavioral changes in at-risk youngsters who moved from antisocial behavioral traits to eagerness to learn. From the university student side, faculty members saw a heightened sensitivity for the needs of the less fortunate and for volunteerism in general. In a recent survey, it was found that students who entered the program with great reluctance, returned for more volunteer work well beyond the graduation requirements. Students have also taken on jobs with service agencies as a result of their community service assignments. In a recent survey of volunteers, it was found that the academic performance of students improved as a result of participation in community service, which required more structure, planning and discipline. …

Evaluating Achievement in Mathematics: Exploring the Gender Biases of Timed Testing

Abstract: Introduction and Background The negative effects of gender bias can be manifested in many ways. Biases present in instruction can inhibit academic achievement by not recognizing and taking into account individual differences in the ways males and females learn. Prejudices concerning the proper roles for females in our society can discourage women from participation in various careers. Additionally, biased methods in the measuring of academic achievement can also distort the picture of what someone knows about mathematics, and create feelings of personal failure. It was the purpose of the study reported in this manuscript to explore the effects of the factor of time on the performance of male and female algebra II and pre-calculus students on SAT-type (Scholastic Aptitude Test) practice exams. According to Rosser (1989) the SAT exam results are often used to measure a student's knowledge of mathematics and predict the student's success in his/her first year of college. These results are also used by many institutions as part of their admission standards, and in their decisions to award scholarships. It is therefore of crucial importance that a person's score accurately measure the person's knowledge and is not systematically biased against special groups. Yet, Rosser notes that although females have higher grade point averages than males in both high school and college, females score considerably lower than males on the SAT exam. One explanation for the paradox of females having higher high school grades yet lower SAT scores than males could be due to gender biases present in the administration of the exam. Prior research investigations have begun to form a clearer picture of the differences in the ways males and females solve mathematics items. Some of these studies have also helped explain why the differences exist. For instance, teachers provide males with more freedom to deviate from algorithmic procedures, while females are expected to closely follow the rules (Fennema and Peterson, 1985). Fennema and Tartre (1985) concluded that girls tend to draw pictures more frequently than boys. Females are more inclined to place an emphasis upon neatness when responding to an item (Macoby and Jacklin, 1974; Bridgeman and Wendler, 1991), and are more inclined to prefer a slower, more exacting approach (Macoby and Jacklin, 1974). Becker (1990) suggested that boys may be more inclined to attempt an unfamiliar item than girls, and more inclined than girls to guess at a solution if difficulties arise (Hudson, 1986). The differences described above could serve to inhibit or distort the achievement scores of females on an exam in which working quickly and educated guessing is an important factor. In fact, some evidence based upon research with precocious adolescents did suggest that the time factor was one of the explanations for the differences between males and females in mathematics achievement as reflected by standardized scores (Gallagher, 1989). As suggested by the research, females are more inclined to be deliberate, and cautious problem solvers than males. Females are more inclined to use complicated algorithms rather than to quickly assess an item and estimate a solution. Finally females are more thoroughly conditioned by society to be neat and complete when responding to tasks. If so, then evaluations in which time is a factor in measuring achievement may result in a more serious distortion of a female's knowledge of mathematics than a male's. To begin with, females would have more difficulty in finishing the exam. Problem solving strategies which allow more exam items to be addressed, such as quickly estimating a solution or at least making an educated guess could be the most advantageous ones to use, especially if there is no correction factor for guessing. Additionally, most correction factors only address 'Wild guessing'. A student who makes a rough estimate which allows him/her to narrow the choices down to two possible answers will generally be rewarded for the effort in spite of the fact that the student may have absolutely no knowledge of an algorithm which could have been used to find the solution. …

Baseline assessment: selecting a method of assessing children on school entry

Abstract: (1994). Baseline assessment: selecting a method of assessing children on school entry. Education 3-13: Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 10-15.

Problems in Supervising Student Teachers

Abstract: The writer has supervised student teachers (ST) for approximately thirty years in the public schools. During these school years, there were numerous issues encountered pertaining to teaching-learning situations. The role of the ST as well as the regular teacher may be perceived differently by the supervisor as compared to either teacher. There can be considerable congruity between perceptions in methodology of teaching between the ST and the regular teacher. Grave differences may also be in evidence. Curricular Perceptions A sixth grade middle school teacher believed strongly in a rather traditional English curriculum. She followed rather thoroughly the adopted textbook from he school system. At one point, much emphasis was placed upon pupils diagraming sentences. The teacher here had pupils pay very careful attention to pupils diagraming complex sentences containing adjective, adverb, and noun dependent clauses. Pupils seemingly paid very careful attention to the details of diagraming. Time on task was quite evident. The teacher was known for having a quiet classroom. The ST liked creative writing experiences for learners and seemed to frown upon a more traditional procedure in teaching pupils. She had pupils actively involved in writing haiku, tankas, limericks, and quatrains. Learners enjoyed the ST's learning opportunities in which background information was presented t pupils prior to each creative writing endeavor. A variety of methods were used to assist pupils to acquire the necessary prerequisites for poetry writing. The regular teacher wanted the ST to provide sequential activities pertaining to th diagraming of sentences. A lack of congruence between the ST's and the regular classroom teacher were certainly in evidence. How should the goals of both teachers be harmonized? Should each pursue his/her own objectives of instructio during the time the ST is doing her student teaching? These are questions that arise pertaining to the curriculum in teaching-learning situations. Discipline and the Learner There certainly are many procedures to use in disciplining pupils. A regular classroom teacher used assertive discipline methods. Here, the teacher had clearly stated goals for pupil behavior in ongoing activities. These goals were listed on a chart for all pupils to see. The teacher reminded learners periodically of the necessity to abide by these standards in order to have a mannerly classroom. She enforced each rule of conduct carefully after any one pupil had broken a rule. Learners tended to abide by these rules of conduct. A ST doing her student teaching in this classroom believed that the goals for pupil behavior were too rigid and arbitrary. She believed that learners should have a voice in cooperatively deciding which rules of conduct to abide by in th classroom. Learners with teacher guidance should then decide how to enforce eac rule that was broken. The ST emphasized that standards of conduct be flexible and guide learners to attain optimally rather than hinder learning. Heavy involvement by pupils in deciding which standards of conduct to follow emphasized a democracy and democratic living, according to the ST. Several problems need resolving here. Should the regular teacher set the standards of conduct for all learners during the time the ST is student teaching? Should a cooperative philosophy of discipline be stressed between the ST and the regular teacher? If the problem cannot be resolved, should the ST be placed in a different classroom with a teacher who believes more like the ST in the discipline arena7 Classroom Climate A ST believes strongly in pupils enjoying what they are learning and doing. Thu pupils individually should have ample opportunities to choose what is to be learned and attained. The learners then need to find motivation through enjoyable activities and experiences. Pupils should have a minimal number of assigned lessons to be provided by the teacher. …

Contemporary Teacher Classroom Performance Observation Instruments

Abstract: Observation of teaching, which flourished in the 1960's and 1970's and then declined, is staging a comeback. This renewed interest has been stimulated by the education accountability movement, the teacher minimum competency movement, and the continuing emphasis on excellence in education. The purpose of this paper is to overview the state of the art of contemporary classroom teaching performance observation instruments. Instruments The Teacher Performance Assessment Instruments (TPAI) (Capie, 1987), its derivative, Teacher Assessment and Development System -- Meritorious Teacher Form (TADS-MTP) (Lovelace & Martin, 1984), and the Florida Performance Measurement System (FPMS) (Peterson, Micceri & Smith, 1985) will be considered at length. Both TPAI and FPMS were developed to assess minimum proficiency of beginning teachers although both TADS-MTP and FPMS were also used in the short lived, controversial, Florida master, actually associate master, teacher program. TPAI The most influential instrument has been the TPAI, initially developed 20 years ago in Georgia, the state to implement a performance-based teacher certificatio model for beginning teachers. The TPAI (Ellett, 1986) is a high-inference ratin system of 14 generic teaching competencies, each articulated in two to five performance indicators (45 total). Probably in excess of $15,000,000 has been spent on TPAI research and development. A considerable number of studies have established TPAI reliability: Capie, Tobin, Ellett & Johnson (1980); Capie, Ellett & Johnson (1981); Capie & Ellett (1982a); among others. Next reported are TPAI validity studies. For an overview of various TPAI validation processes and content analysis correlations with pupil's perceptions of the learning environment, with pupil engagement, and especially with pupil achievement, see Capie & Ellett (1982b). Investigating TPAI dimensions in an independent factor analysis, Wiersma, Dickson, Jurs & Wenig (1983) obtained one large general factor, a teaching factor, and one smaller factor, instructional variety and feedback to students. Hsiung & Capie (1987) also factor analyzed the TPAI and found the factors consistently appearing to be planning, motivation, classroom management, and instruction. TADS-MTP Ellett & Capie (1985) described the development of TADS and especially, TADS-MT in Dade County, Florida. TADS-MTP consists of 19 teaching performance indicator defined by 68 more specific observation units. It is a high-inference system of 82 items categorized in four assessment categories: knowledge of subject matter techniques of instruction, classroom management, and teacher-student relations. It was judged by teachers to have adequate content validity. A larger proportio of merit teachers vs. nonmerit teachers demonstrated greater frequencies of all but one of the 82 TADS-MTP teaching behaviors. The differences were significant on 52 of 82 behaviors. Factor analysis and oblique rotation produced four factors: instruction; management of behavior and maintaining on-task behavior; classroom climate; and efficient administration of classroom routines. FPMS The FPMS is a low-inference observation system. First reported are reliability studies. In an early reliability study (Teacher Evaluation Project, 1982-83), FPMS screening/summative estimates were .79 for discriminate, .85 for interrater, an .86 for stability. In a later reliability study (Teacher Evaluation Project, 1982-84), corresponding estimates were .91, .98, and .92, respectively. Next reported are FPMS validity studies. Smith, Peterson & Micceri (1987a) reported expositorily that factor analysis of the FPM summative scores using the Florida Master Teacher data base supported the domain structure as defined. Teacher experience, attendance, degree, and FPMS classroom performance were compared with student achievement and student task engagement by Allen (1985). …

An Organizational Perspective on Student Discipline

Abstract: Much of the emphasis on discipline centers on classroom management skills of teachers as well as the development of specific classroom techniques for controlling student behavior. We have serious concern about the single focus on techniques. Techniques are important in that they provide concrete actions to deal with specific problems behaviors. However, focusing on discipline techniques neglects the importance of the people who are responsible for using them. Administrators and teachers choose the way they respond to discipline. We have found that their expectations, beliefs, and previous experience influence their choices. Characteristics of their role and the organization in which they work place constraints on their choices. Personal and organizational characteristics therefore may be at least as important to school discipline as specific discipline techniques. Even though these characteristics may influence the success or failure of such techniques, they have often received less attention than the techniques themselves. Our contention, from our experience and research, is that conceiving of discipline as an organizational issue may enhance understanding of discipline problems. By conceptualizing student and teacher behavior as facets of the school milieu, administrators may be able to discover additional causes for and solutions to misbehavior. Emphasizing technique is a narrow solution for studen discipline. Whenever educators restrict themselves to a single type of solution they may become insensitive to feedback concerning the effectiveness of that solution. When techniques fail, educators often intensify their efforts, or the look for another, similar technique. By replacing unsuccessful techniques with new techniques, other potential problems and solutions within the school environment are ignored. Individual teachers and students often have borne primary responsibility for classroom difficulties. We have seen discipline planners aim their efforts at changing or excluding members of these groups. Additional training or the tightening of controls through additional rules is often the response to studen difficulties. This approach can overlook significant issues in establishing goo school discipline. An organizational Focus Our work in schools suggests that organizational factors may be more significan than classroom techniques in explaining and dealing with discipline. Wayson (1985) reported that four or five discipline incidents may originate in organizational characteristics, including how we organize and run schools. Gottredson (1984) found that school organizational factors had a significant effort on delinquency rates. These changes included involving staff, students, and community in planning and implementing change, using information to identif weaknesses, and focusing resources on those weaknesses in making changes in the curriculum and discipline procedures. Such strategies proved more effective in reducing delinquency than a large scale intervention project which included intensive tutoring and high quality counseling services. Our work suggests to us that there is the need for the establishment of a climate for effective school discipline. To establish such a climate, disciplin must be perceived from a total school perspective. The crucial key to an effective total school discipline program is shared values among students, teachers, parents, and administrators about what is acceptable, appropriate behavior in the particular school setting. There are certain organizational characteristics that relate to climates that are conducive to good student behavior. These characteristics include having a commitment to a plan of action attention to teacher and principal role, and indication of strong student involvement. Plan of Action A school-wide emphasis on improvement of student behavior is necessary in rallying commitment of both students and faculty. …

A Strategy for Maintaining the Idealistic Perceptions of Preservice Teachers

Abstract: Through the years, educators have pondered how to preserve the idealism of preservice teachers in the midst of the pragmatism of practicing professionals. The humaneness, ideals, energy, commitments, and most of all, the university promulgated theories, concepts, practices, and materials seem to disintegrate when pitted against the realities of most school systems (Haberman, 1987). Pigge and Marso (1987) reported that teachers' attitudes are relatively stable during the fast year of teaching. However, after the first year of teaching the attitudes change. A national survey (Harris, 1992) on expectations and ideals of second year teachers documented several important changes in attitudes: 1. Prior to their fast year of teaching, 93% of the teachers agreed strongly that all children can lean; the percentage fell to 88% after one year of teaching and 86% after two years. 2. Before teaching, 83% agreed strongly that they "can really make a difference in the lives of their students;" after one year of teaching, the percentage fell to 68%. Their was a slight increase in optimism after the second year of teaching; the percentage increasing to 71%. Twenty-eight percent of new teachers agreed strongly with the statement, "many children come to school with so many problems that it's difficult for them to be good students." This figure rose to 47% after one year of teaching, then to 50% after two years of teaching. It was also reported that in schools which are predominant minority and lower income, this percentage increased dramatically after one year, and again after two years. Differences were found between rural, suburban and urban teachers. After the first and second year of teaching, rural and urban teachers were more likely than suburban teachers to agree strongly that children's problems make it difficult for them to be good students. Preservice teachers have concerns and needs which are peculiar to their stage of development, such as how to accommodate individual differences, assess students' work, interact with parents, organize call work, and deal with the academic and social problems of individual students (Tisher, Fyfield & Taylor, 1979). These are genuine concerns, and it is the responsibility of teacher educators to determine the preconceived ideas, perceptions, misconceptions and views of preservice teachers in order to design learning experiences that will engender a positive teaching philosophy that will remain years after the students have exited the teacher education programs. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was twofold: (1) to determine preservice teachers' beliefs, ideas and perceptions regarding the teaching and learning processes prior to their student teaching experiences, and (2) to make recommendations on strategies to support teacher education graduates during their early teaching years. The following multi-faceted question was addressed: What are the views of preservice teachers as they relate to the curriculum content of teacher education programs on such issues as A. Classroom Management B. Curriculum and Instruction C. Goals of Teaching D. Teaching E. Teacher Self-Concept F. Diversity in General G. Diversity of Dialects Method Sample The sample for this study comprised 210 preservice teachers who were matriculating through two teacher education programs in Louisiana. The group consisted of students in their sophomore, junior and senior years of study, none of whom had student teaching experience. During the Fall of 1992, teacher education professors at the participating institutions agreed to administer the questionnaire to their students. Instrumentation The questionnaire was developed by the National Center for Research on Teacher Education at Michigan State University. The survey consisted of items that assessed the views of preservice teachers regarding classroom management, curriculum and instruction, goals and views on teaching, teacher self-concept, and diversity issues. …

Do School Boards Encourage Parent Involvement

Abstract: Studies of the effects of parent involvement on student achievement and attitudes toward school offer encouraging news for educators and parents. Evidence indicates that parents' active participation in teacher suggested student learning activities, can often enhance children's achievement and attitude toward a subject, especially reading (Greene, 1991; Epstein, 1989; Kennedy, 1991; Wepner & Caccavale, 1991). Despite the documented benefits of parent involvement, in some schools, parent involvement is minimal and decrease in the upper grades (Parents and schools, 1988). If parent involvement in schools has a direct contribution to student learning, to what degree are school boards influencing their administrators to provide such programs? This study examines the responses of school administrators over four and a third year period following their attendance at 576 board meetings t determine: 1) the extent to which central office administrators are assigned tasks that are focused upon supporting and directing principals and other schoo district administrators to attend to fostering positive parent involvement, 2) the nature of the tasks developed to enhance parent involvement in schools. Previous studies of the leadership activity of school boards have examined the relationship of school board minutes and motions to reform efforts. Nowakowski and First (1989) investigated school board minutes to determine Illinois school boards' responses to the Illinois Educational Reform Act of 1985. They found reform-related motions accounted for only 4% of all motions over a three year period. Studying school board motions is but one useful approach to determine the directions of school boards. Other studies have also examined school board minutes (Lutz, 1977; Scribner, 1977). However, school board minutes do not capture other important activity that takes place in school districts (Nowakowski & First, 1989) nor do they measure the actual administrative action that take place immediately following school board meeting attendance. This study measured the nature of administrators' tasks immediately following school board meetings to determine school boards' influence on encouraging administrators to complete tasks associated with parental involvement. Methodology Sample School boards A ten school board supervisory union in rural Vermont, comprising six school-operating and four non-school-operating school boards, was the focus of this investigation. The first six school boards operated a grades K-6 or grades K-8 school. These boards tuitioned their grades 7-9 or grades 9-12 students to adjacent town high schools. Three of the remaining boards were responsible for assuring for the provision of a grades K-12 education for their school-age children, but tuitioned all of their students to adjacent town elementary and high schools. A tenth board, the supervisory union board, was a non-school-operating board, and was composed of representatives from each of th other nine boards. The supervisory union board hired a superintendent and other central office professional and non-professional staff, supervised the operatio of special education and compensatory education, was the fiscal agent of a state-wide leadership center funded by the United States Department of Educatio LEAD Program, and provided coordination and leadership for the managerial, fiscal, and instructional aspects of the general education program for each of the six school-operating-school boards. Thirty-nine school board members served on the ten boards. School age-population for each town ranged from 51-597. Of the eight towns represented in the sample, six were typical Vermont towns with moderately low income, moderately low education level, with a low proportion of school taxes generated from non-residential sources. In contrast, the two remaining towns either had enormous income wealth or business-related school tax revenue in comparison with the first six and both had numerous professional families with advanced levels of education. …

Educating Minority Students for the Health Professions: Taking a Quantum Leap to Meet the Challenge

Abstract: The Challenge Health care reform in the United States has emerged as the most important social issue for the 90s. An essential component of this reformation is the need to change the system currently used to educate health professionals. The challenge confronting education in this reform movement is the need to produce sufficient numbers and types of health professionals to meet new demands of a diverse society. Awareness of disparities in health care outcomes for some citizens increases the pressure on the health professions to produce primary care providers who more realistically represent the diversity of our society. The challenge is to revolutionize the education system through changing attitudes, changing the methodologies used to educate professionals, and through enhancing minority representation in the health professions. According to The Report of the Pew Health Professions Commission (PEW, 1993), nurses and allied health professionals will he essential players in the future primary and preventive health care system. These providers comprise a major portion of the health care workforce, and both groups are facing severe personnel shortages. This report emphasizes the need to increase the number of minority professionals, and challenges educators to refocus educational pedagogy toward health promotion, declining access, and the growing cost of health care. These challenges are not new. The report by Heckler titled Black and Minority Health (US DHHS, 1985) emphasized the need for culturally sensitive health care providers. Louis Sullivan's Healthy People 2000 (US PHS, 1990) cited the need to increase the number of minority health professionals, and the Report of the Lower Mississippi Delta Commission (Clinton, 1990), chaired by then Governor Bill Clinton, underscored the need to recruit students into the health professions who are more likely to remain in inner cities and rural areas of the South. Additionally, the growing consumer movement holds education systems accountable for meeting current needs of society by providing a complement of professionals who more realistically represent today's diversity. Still, the percentage of minority students enrolled in schools of health professions today is less than their representation in the total population (US DHHS, 1991). The "Quantum Leap" The major impediments to change in education are traditional attitudes about professionalism and the academic achievement of minorities. Humphries (1992) labeled these attitudes "institutional racism," and suggested that a "quantum leap" is required to change the way we think about minorities and academic achievement in the health professions. According to Humphries, educators must take the leap, and academic leaders must take action to erase the myths about scholastic abilities and licensure exam success potential of minorities. Not only must we change the methodologies used to educate minorities, but we must re-examine traditional indicators of academic success. Kemp (1990) and Robinson (1990) suggest that higher education should focus beyond retention of minority students and toward graduation and social productivity. According to these authors, minorities want to be educated and graduated, not simply retained. For African Americans, a college degree is a means to cross barriers and realize progress. To understand the gap between entry and exit of minority students, these authors suggest that higher education analyze attrition and graduation rates. Family income, parent's education and high school grades are factors associated with initial enrollment in college (Ballantine, 1989). Studies indicate that (1) the average reading level of Blacks and Hispanics is 4 years lower than White students, (2) more Black students than White students pursue higher education on a part time basis, (3) Black students take longer than White students to complete their college degrees, and (4) historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are more successful than predominately White institutions in retaining and graduating minority students (Ballantine, 1989; Fleming, 1984; Morris, 1979; Syverson & Froster, 1983; Thomas, 1981; Thomas, McPartland, & Gottfredson, 1981). …

Development of a Business-Education Partnership to Reform Secondary Education

Abstract: National focus on the quality of education in the United States had kindled the formation of many local alliances between private industry and education (Sharp & Sharp, 1992; Atkin & Atkin, 1989; Nothdurft, 1989; U.S. Department of Labor, 1988; O'Connell, 1985). As the country's need for unskilled labor continues to diminish and as competition in the global economy sharpens, many U.S. business leaders have concluded that investing in tomorrow's workforce is smart business practice. Moreover, the corporate values of many companies embrace community involvement, perhaps to energize the society in which the company operates. This article describes the establishment of a business-education partnership in a large urban school district in the Southeast, the elements critical to its formation, and how representatives of private industry, government, and higher education worked with teachers to stimulate educational reform. The partnership in Jacksonville, Florida, calls itself "The Alliance for Education" and currently includes representatives of five local businesses, both the city's electric company and its public works department, two branches of the U.S. military, two institutions of higher education, and the local teachers' union. The Alliance is concentrating on improving the quality of education at a single high school, a school with a student population that is 99% African-American. Members of the Alliance are active in abroad range of activities that affect the school including teacher training programs, curriculum revision, student services and public relations. The Beginning An early event that facilitated the formation of Jacksonville's Alliance for Education was a grant to the University of North Florida (UNF) by the Florida Department of Education through Florida's Eisenhower Mathematics and Science Program. The Eisenhower Program derives from the Education for Economic Security Act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1982 and was later renamed to honor former president Dwight D. Eisenhower. Under Title II of that program, federal funds are distributed to states to support mathematics and science education. In 1991, Eisenhower funds were granted to UNF for the purpose of strengthening educational programs at William M. Raines Senior High School, home of Jacksonville's magnet program in mathematics, science, pre-engineering and technology. In the process of generating an Eisenhower proposal in Summer, 1991, UNF faculty member Ray Bowman discovered that Southern Bell had established a mentor program at Raines High School two years previously. Under the guidance of Southern Bell's Operations Manager, the company had begun by pairing twelve male students with Southern Bell employees who served as mentors and tutors. The Bell engineers who took over the program in 1991 expanded the program to about 90 students of both genders and sponsored monthly events throughout the academic year. Southern Bell and UNF quickly joined forces and collaborated in the design of the Eisenhower project. This affiliation had the immediate effect of increasing the grant funding base because Eisenhower funding in Florida at that time required dollar-for-dollar matching contributions. Donation of time by Southern Bell employees augmented the amount of match available and enabled UNF to enlarge the size of its grant-sponsored project. In 1991-92, UNF and Southern Bell focused their efforts on expansion of the mentor program, on incorporation of new equipment and facilities, especially computers, into science and mathematics curricula, and on recruiting other Jacksonville organizations to assist in the Raines project. A series of events followed that seem almost circumstantial in nature but that illustrate some of the critical factors in establishing a business-education partnership. The events track the evolution of the Southern Bell/UNF collaboration to a larger, more organized Alliance. Grant funding permitted the hiring of a local science teacher, Carla Dawson-Jackson, to help coordinate the Eisenhower-sponsored activities. …

Comparison of Texas Teacher Appraisal System Evaluations of Traditional and Post-Baccalaureate Teacher Candidates

Abstract: Purpose of the Study/Hypothesis The purpose of this study was to determine significant differences in classroom performance between traditional and post-baccalaureate teacher candidates as evaluated by the Texas Teacher Appraisal System TTAS instrument. The hypothesis for this study was as follows: There will be a significant difference between the performance of traditionally trained student teachers and accelerated trained post-baccalaureate interns on the TTAS domains and subdomains. Review of the Literature According to the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE), alternative certification may be defined as "any significant departure from the traditional undergraduate route through teacher education programs in colleges and universities" (Smith, 1985, p. 24). Alternative certification is viewed by supporters as a cost-effective way to train people who did not or will not enroll in conventional undergraduate or graduate teacher education programs (Zumwalt, 1991). The practice has been contested by teachers' unions, which view such programs as a threat to the professional image projected by the traditional university teacher certification process (Cetron & Gayle, 1991). "Despite the controversies surrounding the topic, alternative teacher certification is a rapidly growing phenomenon in the united States" (Feistritzer & Chester, 1991, p. 11). The literature has produced little empirical evidence concerning programs that offer an alternate route to teacher certification. Past accounts of alternative teacher certification plans have been concerned mainly with program components and consist primarily of a description of the program. For example, a study of the Dallas Independent School District (DISD) Alternative Certification program by Hutton, Lutz, and Williamson (1990) explored attitude changes regarding teaching, characteristics of the alternative certification intern, first-year teachers' responses to the teacher work-life inventory, and statewide certification test scores. However, no empirical comparison of teacher performance was made to traditional programs. Significance of the Study Teacher training is a current topic of debate and publicity (Banks & Necco, 1990). Critics have underscored the overall decline in college entrance examination scores (National commission on Excellence in Education, 1983); the general lower quality of such test scores among teacher education majors (Sykes, 1982); and the high rate of job burn-out and turnover among presently employed teachers (Schlecky and Vance, 1983). Yet, nearly a decade later, there has been little change. In an effort to attract higher quality teachers (Economic Report, 1991), many states have made teacher certification requirements much stricter while others are focusing on "modernizing" teacher education. Consequently, pre-service teacher education is under pressure to stress the acquisition of content knowledge by undergraduates hoping to become K-12 teachers (Ishler, Robinson & Larson, 1990). Alternative certification programs attempt to attract talented individuals by incorporating rigorous performance standards, responding quickly to evaluation, and by insuring commitment in both process and outcomes (TEA, 1991). If alternative certification is to be accepted as a legitimate method for increasing the pool of quality teachers, then the preparedness and performance of non-traditionally certified teachers should be comparable to traditionally trained student teachers. Methodology This study compared classroom observations of student teachers educated in a traditional teacher training program with those of interns educated in an accelerated, post-baccalaureate teacher training program. Subjects. Five experimental subjects were students enrolled in an East Texas State University (ETSU) post-baccalaureate intern program for accelerated teacher training in the areas of science and/or mathematics during the summer semester of 1992. …

High School Teachers and Mainstreaming: Implications for Training

Abstract: A study conducted to determine teachers perceptions of the reasonableness and frequency of use of accommodative strategies for students who are learning disabled (LD) led to the conclusion that teachers felt that their pre-service and in-service education had not equipped them to teach LD students. This finding is in agreement with Salend and Johns' review of research which found that teachers feel unequipped to teach exceptional children (1982, p. 82). During the 1990-1991 school year, mainstream high school teachers in Southeast Texas who taught or who had taught students who were LD, were surveyed. Fifty-nine teachers volunteered to complete the surveys. The first survey sought to determine teachers' perceptions of the reasonableness of accommodative strategies that can be used to meet the learning needs of students who are LD. The second survey sought teachers' perceptions of frequency of use of the same accommodations. Thirty eight teachers returned usable pairs of surveys. An analysis of the survey results indicated that teachers found most of the accommodative strategies reasonable but seldom used the strategies. After a comparison of responses to the surveys, teachers whose perceptions of reasonableness and perceptions of frequency of use of accommodative strategies were most lacking in agreement were interviewed in order to find out why they rated accommodations as reasonable yet failed to use the accommodations. Fifteen teachers from different schools and representing different content areas were interviewed. The sample consisted of three English teachers, two math teachers, two science teachers, two social studies teachers, one career/vocational teacher, four teachers of other subjects, and one teacher who taught three different subjects. Teachers of "other subjects" included one art teacher, one marketing teacher, one business electives teacher, and one physical education teacher. The teacher who taught more than one subject taught English, psychology, and sociology. The interview respondents' teaching experience ranged from one year to 35 years. Teachers were asked five sets of questions which sought to determine the reasons that their classroom behavior in using accommodative strategies was not consistent with their perceptions of the reasonableness of accommodative strategies. A sixth and final question asked for comments or suggestions teachers would like to make regarding issues that had not been addressed by the previous questions. All teachers were asked the same questions. Although the order of the questions depended on the individual situation, the first and last questions were always the same. When possible, the questions were asked in the following order: 1. After looking at some samples of your responses, what makes some teaching strategies which are considered reasonable, usable, while others are not usable? Is there anything that stands in your way of making some accommodations? What makes some strategies reasonable while others are unreasonable? Why are some accommodations made even though they are unreasonable? 2. Think of an LD student you have had recently. In your view what special problems do LD students present? How would you describe LD students (academically, behaviorally, socially)? 3. What strategies have you found to be most effective for teaching LD students? Where did you learn these strategies? 4. What assistance do you get that helps you teach mainstreamed LD students? 5. What could be done to help teachers accommodate LD students in the mainstream? 6. Do you have any comments or suggestions regarding mainstreaming which we have not discussed? Table 1 Years of Experience YRS EXP 1-3 4-9 10-19 20-29 30+ N 1 4 3 4 3 All of the interviews were recorded and transcribed. Numerous readings of the transcripts led to the identification of responses which were repeated across interviews. …