Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 1999"

Brain and Learning Research: Implications for Meeting the Needs of Diverse Learners

Abstract: Teachers and administrators face enormous challenges to effectively prepare all students for a technological and global society. There is an ever-increasing diverse range of student abilities, as well as a multiplicity of intelligences, present in our schools. Each and every child has great capacity to learn when exposed to effective and relevant learning strategies. Current brain and learning research can lead to the identification of educationally meaningful differences among individuals and equal opportunities for academic success. Overview of Brain and Learning Research Brain Structure Dramatic developments in brain research and imaging technology are rapidly advancing our conceptualization of the human brain. Sylwester (1993, 1994) discloses how modern studies of brain structure show incredible complexity of approximately 100 billion neurons, each connected to thousands of other neurons and forming more connections than there are atoms in the entire universe. Describing the brain as modular, Sylwester explains how a few standard nonthinking components combine information to form a complex cognitive environment. The brain is powerfully shaped by genetics, development, and experience while actively shaping the nature of our experiences and culture in which we live. Current brain studies underscore the important role adults play in facilitating an early stimulating environment for children. Calling for classrooms that are closely related to real-world environments, Sylwester believes curricula must include many sensory, cultural, and problem layers that stimulate the brain's neural networks. Multiple Intelligences Teachers must be allowed to celebrate the richness of their students. Accordingly, all students must be given opportunities to express their varied talents and to apply complex problem solving that needs to follow any learning. Gardner (1993) presents a pluralistic view of the mind by recognizing different facets of cognition and acknowledging that people have many different mental strengths and contrasting cognitive styles. He suggests that most students who achieve academic success have done so because their strengths in critical reading and calculation promote higher scores on paper and pencil instruments. Gardner defines intelligence as the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural or community settings. Another criteria for Gardner's definition of intelligence is that an ability must have a particular representation in the brain. Gardner's initial research led to the identification of seven intelligences. Linguistic intelligence is the capacity to use language for expression and understanding other people: Logical-mathematical intelligence is logical and mathematical ability, as well as scientific ability. Spatial intelligence refers to the capability to form a mental model of a spacial world and to operate using that model. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to solve problems or create products using the whole body or parts of the body. Musical intelligence is the capacity to think in music, to hear musical patterns, and create musical products. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people and work cooperatively with them. Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and use that knowledge to operate effectively in life. In an interview with Checkley (1997), Gardner discusses the identification of an eighth intelligence. The naturalist intelligence designates the ability to discriminate among living things, as well as a sensitivity to other features of the natural world. Each person is unique in his particular combination of intelligences. Making the case for the plurality of intellect, Gardner asserts the purpose of an education should be tied to an understanding of how minds differ from each other and calls for individual-centered schools geared to optimal development of each student's cognitive profile. …

Assessing Student Performance: A Descriptive Study of the Classroom Assessment Practices of Ohio Teachers

Abstract: Introduction Assessment of student learning is a regular part of the school routine. A sizable amount of classroom time is devoted to the assessment of student learning. Since teachers must give even more time to the preparation and scoring of tests and other assessments, a substantial proportion of a teacher's day is devoted to issues surrounding student assessment. One could argue, then, that careful consideration of testing within formal teacher preparation programs is certainly warranted. If educators, particularly those in teacher preparation programs, are to help teachers use their student testing time efficiently and to be effective at it, more must be learned about how teachers perceive and use classroom tests and other forms of assessment (Gullickson, 1984). For some time, there has been a perceived misalignment between what is taught to preservice teachers, in terms of assessment skills and techniques, and what inservice teachers actually practice in the schools (Farr & Griffin, 1973; Gullickson, 1986). Some have argued that measurement courses tend to overemphasize large-scale, standardized testing (Farr & Griffin, 1973; Stiggins & Bridgeford, 1985), as well as statistical analyses of classroom test data (Gullickson, 1986), neither of which serve teachers' primary measurement needs. It has been noted that teachers place much emphasis on non-test assessment and evaluation strategies (Gullickson, 1985). In his study, Gullickson (1984) reported that the average teacher did not perceive college measurement courses to be pertinent to his/her classroom testing needs and that most teachers learned how to test their students through their on-the-job experiences. We in higher education seem to have a limited understanding of the nature of assessment practices in K-12 classrooms (Stiggins & Bridgeford, 1985). From the perspective of the classroom teacher, this seems to imply a need for the reorientation of college instruction, with respect to measurement issues and concepts. Several researchers have examined the traditional assessment practices of teachers and have arrived at somewhat similar conclusions. In their study, Stiggins and Bridgford (1985) discovered that about half of the teachers studied reported comfortable use of teacher-made objective tests. This finding held true across grade levels and subject areas. Marso (1985; 1987) arrived at the same conclusions for teachers in general, but did find several differences between elementary and secondary teachers. Secondary teachers tended to use more self-constructed tests rather than published tests; whereas, the opposite was true for elementary teachers, especially those in grades K-4. Similarly, others have found that the higher the grade level, the greater the tendency for teachers to use their own assessments (Stiggins & Bridgeford, 1985). Secondary teachers reported relatively more use of essay and problem-type items and less frequent use of completion and multiple-choice items than did elementary teachers (Marso, 1987). Marso (1985) also found that teachers perceived matching, multiple-choice, and completion type items as being most useful. Marso & Pigge (1987) found no significant differences with respect to assessment practices based on school setting (urban, suburban, or rural) or age of teacher. However, subject area differences did exist. Teachers of mathematics reported more use of problem-type test items as compared to other subject areas, namely business, English, science, and social studies. Social studies teachers reported less frequent use of statistical analyses of test data, but more frequent use of essay items than did the other areas. Science teachers reported more frequent use of problem-type items than did English and social studies teachers. Similarly, Stiggins and Bridgeford (1985) found that teachers of mathematics and science tended to use their own objective tests slightly more that teachers of writing and speaking courses. …

Constructivist Principles of Learning and Teaching Methods

Abstract: As K-12 teachers strive to help students learn academic content, skills, and dispositions, teacher educators strive to prepare these teachers So how should today's elementary and secondary preservice teachers be educated? This article identifies principles of cognitive science that teachers must know and apply The ultimate goal is to identify ways in which principles from cognitive science, particularly constructivist theory and research from cognitive psychology, are useful in teaching and learning As a result, teachers and teacher educators will have better theory, principles, and pedagogy on which to build their teaching and student learning so that all teachers are better prepared to educate their students Based on these theories and principles, specific approaches to teaching and learning will be identified that assure high-quality learning experiences for all students Constructivism and Constructivist Principles There are several approaches to constructivism with two major branches, those built on philosophical theory(ies) of learning (see von Glaserfeld, 1996) and those built on psychological theories (Fosnot, 1996) intended to explain constructivism as a theory of human learning Bentley (1996), a science educator, believes that social-contextual constructivism and radical constructivism are most prominent Loving (1997), another science educator, sees the varieties of constructivism as including" personal (Ausubel) to the radical (Piaget and Von Glaserfeld) to the social (Vygotsky) and finally to the critical (Habermas p 432)" For Fosnot (1996), constructivism is either social or cognitive while Stahl and Casteel (1997) advocate what they call an information constructivist perspective Although there are several approaches to constructivism, for Phye (1997), "[c]ommon perspectives include the view that academic knowledge construction on the part of students is basically a learning process that involves change Thus, knowledge is the desired outcome or effect of the process of learning" (p 594) For Phye (1997), implementing a constructivist classroom requires that The classroom teacher must be in a position to: (1) influence or create motivating conditions for students (2) take responsibility for creating problem situations , (3) foster acquisition and retrieval of prior knowledge , and (4) create a social environment that emphasizes the attitude of learning to learn IT]he learning process not the product of learning is the primary focus of constructivism (p 596) In facilitating teachers' understanding of constructivism, Brooks (1990) presents an extensive list of constructivist teaching practices These require the teacher to recognize and encourage student autonomy and leadership, encourage the use of " raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive, and physical materials," (page 70) use the vocabulary of cognitive science such as predict, analyze, and classify in developing student activities, maximize student thinking and their use of instructional strategies, question students to identify" their theories about concepts before sharing your understandings of those concepts ," (page 70) promote dialogue between students and between teachers and students, help students to elaborate their ideas, challenge students' thinking by presenting contradictions to their ideas without demeaning them as persons, use wait-time after questioning students, promote inquiry by students through questioning them and having them question one another, provide time for student processing and thinking, encourage student reflection, design curriculum " around conceptual clusters--of problems, questions, discrepant situations," (page 70) use curriculum at the students' level of development, identify students conceptions and misconceptions and develop lessons that respond to such immediately, and, for some tasks, group students by intellectual ability …

The Effect of Student-Faculty Interaction on College Students' Academic Achievement and Self Concept

Abstract: Numerous projects have focused on the relationship between student-faculty interactions and outcome variables such as academic achievement and overall satisfaction of college students (e.g., Lamport, 1993; Pascarella, 1980; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1976; Pascarella, Terenzini, & Hibel, 1978). To date, however, there has been no empirical work that has examined the relation between student-faculty interaction and college students' self-concept. Determining whether or not faculty have an impact on students' self-concept may be meaningful in regard to students' overall achievement as well as, their general experience in college. Student-Faculty Interaction Tinto (1987) stated that student-faculty interactions, which include both formal classroom experiences and informal interactions outside of class, are crucial to the academic continuation and intellectual development of students. According to Tinto (1987), a lack of such interactions is a very significant determinant of attrition. Likewise, Pascarella and Terenzini (1976) reported that the frequency and quality of student-faculty interactions significantly predict freshman academic outcomes such as college satisfaction and attrition. Related work has found that students who frequently interacted with faculty expressed greater satisfaction with their total college experience in comparison to students who interact at a lesser level (Wilson, Gaff, Dienst, Wood, & Bavry, 1975). Wilson et al. (1975) also indicate that faculty who enjoy and seek interaction with students outside of class demonstrate their accessibility for such interaction through their in-class attitudes and teaching styles. In a project that specifically examined the relation between student-faculty interaction and academic performance, Pascarella, Terenzini, and Hibel (1978) found that student-faculty interactions had a significant influence on students' academic performance as measured by students' SAT scores and freshman year cumulative GPA. Interactions focusing on intellectual or course-related matters had the strongest association with achievement (Pascarella, Terenzini, & Hibel, 1978). However, interactions dealing mostly with future careers also made a significant contribution to students' achievement. Further, they found that students who interacted more frequently with faculty, performed better academically than what was predicted from their pre-enrollment characteristics (i.e., SAT scores). On the other hand, students who seldom met with faculty tended to achieve at lower levels than predicted. Taken together, the existing research suggests that student-faculty interactions are important to a student's college experience. College Student Self-Concept Self-concept can be defined as how a person thinks about him/herself in different areas of his or her life. More specifically, academic self-concept refers to a student's perceptions of his or her academic abilities (House, 1992). A number of projects (e.g., Hamachek, 1995; House, 1993) have shown that students' self concept is significantly associated with academic achievement. Further, Loeb and Magee (1992) suggest that students with low self-esteem who find it difficult adjusting to college academics may benefit from support (e.g., faculty, peers, family) which may lead to increased satisfaction with college and enhanced self-concept. Lastly, Gerdes and Mallinckrodt (1994) recently suggested that having support and interaction with faculty may be related to students' academic achievement and self-concept. The Present Study The present study examines the relation between student-faculty interactions and students' academic achievement and self-concept. Based upon the existing research, it is hypothesized that positive student-faculty interactions will result in higher levels of academic achievement among college students. There has been no empirical work, to date, which directly examines the relation between student-faculty interaction and college student self-concept. …

INCLUSION: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF INSERVlCE GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHERS' ATTITUDES AND CONCERNS

Abstract: Of the students with special needs, such as the gifted student or the at risk student, the majority have had their educational needs satisfied in the general education class. However, most students with disabilities have been historically served in segregated special education classes. In 1975, Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, was passed which opened the doors of public education and general education to students with learning disabilities. Prior to the passage of this legislation, few students with disabilities were provided services in public schools. The students that were provided service in public schools were usually served in segregated classrooms and had very little, or no, contact with their nondisabled peers. Following this legislation, it was mandated that school-age students with disabilities should be provided a free appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. This was a very significant improvement in education for these students. As a result, there was a rapid growth of special education programs. The model of service for most of these students was the resource room with appropriate mainstreaming. However, since the 1980's many parents of students with special needs together with special education professionals have been pressing for more integrated services for students with disabilities. In 1990, Public Law 94-142 was reauthorized and the name was changed to The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA). There has been a thrust on the part of many special educators for total Inclusion of all students with special needs into the general classroom. Instead of taking students with disabilities out of the general education classroom and providing them with special instruction in a resource room, the supporters of total inclusion propose that all students with moderate to severe disabilities should be educated in the general education program. This movement has been endorsed and implemented by many schools and school districts and at the same time ignored and criticized by others. There are many pros and cons of the inclusion movement. Those in favor of total inclusion are convinced that it is the most effective way of providing service to all students. Those not in favor of total inclusion strongly recommend not implementing the model without further research. Some of the advantages of inclusion noted by Huefner (1988), were reduction in stigma of the students with disabilities, encouragement of collaboration between the special education and general education teachers, and increased interaction between students with disabilities and their nondisabled peers. Brady and Taylor (1989) noted that the general education classroom can be appropriate for many students with disabilities. Supporters of inclusion maintain that with including students with disabilities in the general classroom, fewer students will be identified with negative labels (Wang & Birch, 1984). Those not in favor of total inclusion are concerned that there has not been sufficient research to warrant the abandonment of existing special education programs. They believe that inclusion if" it is adopted too quickly on a widespread basis, could bring serious harm to the very students it is designed to help" (Davis, 1989, p.144). Students with learning disabilities generally do not succeed academically in the general education classroom without support from the special education teacher (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Fernstrom, 1993). Academic instruction in the general education classroom is often large group instruction (Baker & Zigmond, 1990) and not all teachers make adaptations for the students with learning disabilities (McIntosh, Vaughn, Schumm, Haager, & Lee, 1993; Schumm, Vaughn, Haager, McDowell, Rothlein, & Samuell, 1995). At the 1995, International Conference on Learning Disabilities, in Orlando, Florida, Cecil Mercer, a prominent professional in special education, in his keynote address, stated that we need more research in the area of inclusion and that it was not necessarily the best for all students with disabilities. …

An Application of Tinto's Model at a Commuter Campus

Abstract: Meaningful connections between the disciplines which have been popularized recently, appear in theories of higher education related to student departure. On the one hand, many attempts to explain student departure have relied heavily on psychological models. Models such as those by Rossmann and Kirk (1970), and Waterman and Waterman (1972), emphasize the roles individual personality and disposition play in influencing the student's willingness and ability to meet the academic and social demands of institutions of higher learning. Thus, in this psychological context, student departure becomes a reflection of individual maladjustment. However, a myriad of other models combine sociology with higher education, to present institutions of higher learning as mirocosms of society. Sociological theories account for the influence of an environment on individual behavior that psychological theories fail to examine. Sociological explanations for student departure present student departure not just as the individual student's decision, but as a function of the student body and of the institution of higher learning itself. Thus, student success and failure becomes part of the broader process of social attainment. Pincus (1980) argues that student departure must be understood not as isolated individual events, but as part of the larger process of social stratification, in which race and sex are key players. For theorists, such as Duncan, Featherman (1972), Sewell and Hauser (1975), and Featherman and Hauser (1978), patterns of student departure are further influenced by organizations, such as the institution of higher education, which directly affect the individual student's ability to compete in the academic marketplace. Review of Literature One of the most famous examples of the conflation of sociology and higher education is in Tinto's model of college student attrition, which derives its strength from Durkheim's conception of solidarity. In the context of higher education, social solidarity becomes a state of collective social and intellectual integration. Consequently, Durkheim's conception of anomic suicide is akin to the concept of involuntary student departure. Entrance into institutions of higher education, and therefore entrance into a new society necessitates, to varying degrees, a severance of ties to the individual's past society. This severance of ties catalyzes the creation of anomie, or a state of confusion and insecurity, which can lead to anomic suicide in the form of student departure. The contribution of Durkheim's theories to Tinto's model of college student attrition is twofold. In accordance with the aforementioned sociological models, Tinto adheres to Durkheim's philosophy that solidarity is a collective social, and institutional phenomenon, rather than a psychological phenomenon of the students. In addition, Tinto also adopts Durkheim's conception of solidarity as playing a pivotal role in the academic and social integration that imposes both ideas and values upon individual students. These two aspects of Durkheim's theories do not necessarily indicate that students themselves possess little agency in decisions of departure; rather, these two aspects assist in the systematic examination of the relationship between student departure and institutional ethos. Moreover, approaching student departure from a sociological standpoint allows for examination of certain trends between student departure and subsets of the population. In order to understand student departure in a sociological context, it is necessary to view student departure, not as an individual phenomenon, but as related to the individual's precollege environment, and as the foundation for the individual student's post-college possibilities and opportunities. For this, we turn to Van Gennep and his discussion of the movement of individuals, specifically in rites of passage. Van Gennep (1960) argued that each stage in rites of passage necessitates a change in the patterns of interaction between the individual (in this case, the individual student) and his/her environment. …

Educational leadership must move beyond management training to visionary and moral transformational leaders

Abstract: Bennis (1989) would probably appreciate the irony in Clemens' comment. He once remarked that "To an extent, leadership is like beauty: It is hard to define, but you know it when you see it." (p.1) Both statements strike to the heart of the leadership/administration dichotomy and to the dilemma of those who prepare leaders for the changing demands and cultural norms of the new millennium. Although the primary target of many educational reformers is the public schools, their message echoes loudly in the hallowed halls of academe as well. If leadership is vital to the schools, preparation of those leaders is very serious business indeed, and graduate programs must move beyond the training of efficient managers, to the preparation of visionary, moral, and transformational leaders. Educators developing new programs and those revisiting existing ones are morally obligated to carefully investigate the knowledge base(es) on which they will build their curriculum and delivery systems rather than overlaying behavioral/structural models with post-structural or post-modern ones. They can start with fresh assumptions about the nature of leadership, drawing from English, Senge, Sergiovanni, Hodgkinson, Bennis and a host of other contemporaries. This will be a formidable task since there is shifting consensus on what constitutes leadership, and whether it can even be "taught." Research and experience have taught us much in recent years about child development, learning theory, classroom management, effective teaching, motivation and discipline, and the appropriate use of instructional technology. Effective schools research has built upon this to suggest new roles for school leaders and new models to prepare them. With over 15,000 school districts in this country we have a large numbers of successful programs to study and emulate. And yet there appears to be a reluctance to move beyond the scientific methods of the past, the traditional models that have been in place for decades. One colleague has described it as "institutional inertia." Perhaps, a brief examination of this fledgling field we call educational administration, and more recently educational leadership, might shed some light on this phenomenon. While leadership is at least as old as man, the term didn't appear in the literature on school administration until well after the turn of the 20th century (English, 1994). Educational administration began as an offspring Of scientific management and its early adherents were fervently entrenched in the doctrine of efficiency, leading to what English (1994) calls "scientism." Later came the behaviorists, then the organizational sociologists, neither of which has provided the predictive power to solve the myriad problems facing 21st century educators. An increasing number of investigators believe that too many administrators see themselves as continuing the legacy of efficiency through systems theory and, now, total quality management. Over the course of the late twentieth century, our understanding of leadership has changed rather dramatically as we have recognized that what leaders do is determined, in large part, by the nature of those being led and the culture of the organizations in which they work. Additionally, as systems theory suggests, those organizations are influenced by and, in turn, influence the greater culture of which they are a part. The European and Asian concepts of communities bound by bludt and bot, the familial ties and bloodlines of generations, is not a part of the American culture. Two hundred years of immigration, economic mobility, a unique political environment, a decentralized educational system, and America's sheer geographic size have resulted in a diversity of cultural values unmatched anywhere in the world. That diversity coupled with our absolute commitment to compulsory education to further the commonweal and a constitution that leaves education to the fifty states poses an enormous challenge to educational leaders. …

Metacognitive Learning Strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities

Abstract: Definition of Metacognition In the psychology literature, metacognition is referred to as one's "inner language" or as "thinking about one's own thinking" or more specifically metacognition refers to an individual's self-knowledge about their cognition and to the ability to be able to influence one's own cognition (Meichenbaum, 1985). Research on metacognition has strong possibilities and opportunities to influence our understanding of learning strategies for students with learning disabilities. A strategy is a systematically thought out approach which enables us to get from one point to another. The goal of a strategy is to teach students how to become purposeful, effective and independent learners. Self-assessment (Miller, 1991) and self-monitoring is thought to facilitate strategic functioning. Learning is influenced by several factors including inadequate prior knowledge, poor study skills, problems with maintaining sustained attention, cultural or language differences or the presence of a learning disability. Most students who are successful learners have been able to realize by themselves the self-understanding that pertains to knowing what are effective learning strategies for a given learning situation. Students with learning disabilities typically lack this self-knowledge and self-awareness and therefore, they must be taught these strategies directly. Students with learning disabilities often find learning a difficult and painful process. Learning becomes difficult when there are memory problems, difficulties in following directions, sustaining attention, trouble with the visual or auditory perception of information, or visual-coordination problems resulting in an inability to perform paper and pencil tasks. The presence of a learning difficulty can make learning to read, write and do math especially challenging. Students who have learning disabilities are often overwhelmed, disorganized and frustrated in learning situations. In the process of instructing learners to improve the learning process, distinctions can be made between cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies help a person process and manipulate information; examples include taking notes, asking questions, or filling out a chart. Cognitive strategies tend to be very task specific, implying that certain cognitive strategies are useful only when learning or performing certain tasks. Metacognitive strategies are executive in nature. They are the strategies a student uses when planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning or strategy performance. Hence, they are often referred to as self-regulatory strategies. A person who uses metacognitive strategies must therefore be aware of the need for executing strategies such as planning, monitoring and evaluating; thus being able to imagine and envision the future with reference to performing in a situation. The most effective outcomes are received by learners who combine the metacognitive with the cognitive. Metacognitive processes are presumed to provide the individual with some volitional control over various cognitive routines related to problem solving. Instructional Strategies for Learners with Learning Disabilities There is a significant difference between teaching a child "how" as opposed to "what" to think. The use of metacognitive strategies by a student indicates that the student is aware of learning as a process and that he/she is also aware of learning how to learn methods of how to accomplish learning. Taking the time to plan before writing or taking the time to organize an outline before writing, for example, shows that the student knows and understands what is involved in writing a good composition (Spence, 1990). When these strategies are be integrated into content area learning, the learning outcomes are successful (Scruggs and Mastropieri, 1993). Unfortunately, few studies have attempted to examine the relationship between cognitive and metacognitive functions. …

Using a Questionnaire to Assess Prospective Teachers' Attitudes toward Multicultural Education Issues

Abstract: Introduction As we approach the twenty-first century, the population of the U.S. is becoming more diverse, with minority populations and sub-populations increasing in numbers. Consequently, the student population in the public schools is changing rapidly. In 1976, 24 percent of the total enrollment in U.S. public schools was non-white. It is projected that by the year 2020, the nonwhite population will account for 46 percent of the public school enrollment (Cushner, McClelland, & Stafford, 1992). Estrada (1993) and Hodgkinson (1995) note the increased number of immigrants since 1980 coming from Mexico, other Latin American nations, and Asian countries who are non-English speakers and the increased number of children who are living below the poverty line. These demographic changes are creating concomitant diversity in linguistic backgrounds as well as in economic and family patterns. These changes create what James Banks (1991) refers to as the "demographic imperative," a situation which requires classroom practitioners to be more responsive to an increasingly diverse population. This demographic imperative has implications for teacher education programs. Programs need to prepare teachers who can effectively instruct students of diverse backgrounds and cultures. A broader implication for teacher education programs is the need to prepare teachers who can teach all students to live and function in diverse communities and contribute to social prosperity at the national and global levels. The skills, attitudes, and knowledge learned through multicultural education are important for all students. Teacher educators play an instrumental role in identifying and implementing appropriate strategies for realizing multicultural education objectives. To adequately perform their tasks, teacher educators must identify ways of assessing the effectiveness of the activities and programs they employ for actually promoting multicultural education aims. The purpose of this investigation was to develop a viable survey questionnaire for assessing prospective teachers' attitudes and perceptions concerning multicultural education issues and to test the efficacy of the instrument for identifying attitude differences among the prospective teachers. If attitudes about multicultural education can be assessed through a questionnaire, the results may be beneficial for helping to prepare teachers to serve diverse student groups. The investigators assumed that prospective teachers with positive attitudes and opinions are more prone to behave appropriately and constructively in actual teaching situations involving students of diverse cultures, ethnic groups, backgrounds, abilities, economical levels, etc. and, generally, in dealing with multicultural issues in classroom settings. This assumption is supported by Larke (1990) who contends that studies show "... a high correlation exists among educators' sensitivity (attitudes, beliefs and behaviors toward students of other cultures) knowledge and application of cultural awareness information and minority students' successful academic performance." (p. 24) A multicultural education course is required for prospective teachers in the Secondary Education program at James Madison University and this course is designed to help these students learn instructional strategies and draw upon their prior learning experiences in order to apply effective multicultural education teaching methodologies. Emphasis is also placed on understanding the varied backgrounds and needs of students and on developing positive attitudes toward accommodating those different needs. Accordingly, the course instructor tries to promote attitudes that will predispose the prospective teacher to be more open to multicultural education concepts and more reflective in making instructional decisions involving student diversity implications. Course experiences are designed to encourage the prospective teachers to do what Banks (1993) suggests to challenge the major paradigms and established perspectives that are found within mainstream scholarship. …

Intrapersonal Intelligence: Affective Factors in Thinking

Abstract: The issue of defining intelligence has been a difficult and controversial subject for both psychologists and educators alike. Most recently the trend has been to include aspects of thinking and learning that emphasize its highly personalized and self-reflective nature. This paper reviews theory and research showing how factors such as emotional awareness, self-control, and self-efficacy are changing our conceptions of what it means to be intelligent. The role of societal and cultural influences are also discussed as contributing to how and why this trend has emerged today. Throughout the history of psychology, there have been many competing theories of intelligence. Despite these different theories, many psychologists agree on the basic conceptual definition of intelligence as the overall capacity for learning and problem solving; it is the ability to adapt to and reshape one's environment. Previous conceptions of intelligence tended to focus more on those skills and processes directly related to the solving of sterile problems of a purely logical, rational nature. Evidence for the validity of such theories could be found in the moderate to strong positive correlations between IQ tests and academic performance, (i.e., grades in school) (Woolfolk, 1995). More recent approaches to intelligence have called this line of reasoning into question, however, based in part on the fact that (1) although correlations between traditional IQ tests and school performance are at least moderately strong, they are by no means perfect, and (2) correlations between these tests and other measures of success in life (such as income) are appreciably lower (Sternberg & Wagner, 1995). For those theorists, the capacity to learn and adapt to one's environment encompasses a wider range of distinctive abilities than was previously articulated. The capabilities necessary to do well in a school are not synonymous with those necessary to do well in the "real world". One aspect of intelligence that is being increasingly emphasized in recent approaches to learning and pedagogy, as well as formal theories of intelligence is the role of self-knowledge. The ability to set goals, monitor progress, and be aware of one's current emotional and motivation state is recognized as a critical feature of adaptive behavior. Modern theories such as Howard Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences and Robert Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory of intelligence include such self-awareness components. Most recently, Daniel Goleman (1995) has made an even more dramatic departure from the traditional conceptions of intelligence by suggesting that one's personal, "emotional" intelligence is the most important capability for success and happiness in life. Unfortunately, Bracken (1997) noted that we have had difficulty comprehending and discovering the inner realities of intelligence (p.12). The purpose of this paper is to review and synthesize theory and research on the role of self-knowledge in learning, problem-solving, and thinking. Specifically, this will include a discussion about the contribution of self-knowledge and conceptualization within current theories of intelligence, its influence on educational theory and practice, and the impediments to attaining (or making use of) self-awareness. In the following section a brief review of how major theories of intelligence have evolved from the fixed unitary models of the past to the multifaceted and orthogonally independent abilities theories of today. Theories of Intelligence: A Historical Perspective One popular theory of unitary intelligence was pioneered by E.L. Thorndike. Thorndike believed that mental capacities have commonalities that form intellectual clusters (cited in Oakland & Parmalee, 1985). Thorndike specified three clusters of mental ability: social intelligence (people skills), concrete intelligence (dealing with things), and abstract intelligence (verbal and mathematical skills) (cited in Oakland & Parmalee, 1985). …

Teaching values through elementary social studies and literature curricula

Abstract: Educating children to take personal responsibility for their actions is both a parental and a societal responsibility. Certainly schools can teach the democratic values that help sustain us as a nation: respect for all people, reverence for the sanctity of life, the right of dissent and equality for all people before the law. The school's curricula should also support parental teaching of character and of moral decision making. Values such as: honesty, respect, care, responsibility, and respecting the rights of others should be systematically taught to the young child. With the breakdown of the family, in America, more than half of all marriages dissolve in divorce. Many children are subjected to a lack of moral training due to the exigencies of meeting life's necessities in a single parent home. In a national survey of 40,000 teenagers conducted by USA Weekend, eighty percent think values should be taught in school because parents don't do it or they believe it's the school's responsibility. Almost half believe that it's too late to teach values to teenagers. We need to start earlier, as soon as the child comes to school. Mass media with its glorification of sex and violence has inundated immature minds with examples of poor behavior and immoral character. Schools in America must take a more active role in the teaching of moral values, since other institutions are failing to meet their responsibilities. The place of values in the curriculum is controversial. It is clearly inappropriate to teach religious values or political viewpoints in a pluralistic society. But many educators believe that it is inevitable that when teachers view student's behaviors, they become cognizant of the way attitudes and actions shape student's choices. Positive values and attitudes are an important part of school success. Teachers have a unique opportunity to help students make positive decisions regarding their education, their goals for themselves, and the development of positive interpersonal relationships in the classroom. Teachers need to recognize the role of beliefs and values in shaping behaviors. Learning activities can be developed to help children evolve their values relating to living in a democratic and multicultural society. Among the goals where teachers can have an impact are helping students recognize what they value and how they treat the things they value. The entire elementary curriculum should teach these values. The social studies curriculum and children is literature offer extensive opportunities for the teaching of moral behavior. Four basic approaches can be utilized including: 1. Inculcation: teaching values and providing consistent reinforcement for desired behaviors. 2. Clarification: helping students to become aware of their own values. 3. Moral Reasoning: helping students develop ethical principles for guiding their actions. 4. Values Analysis: helping students develop careful, discriminating analysis to examine values questions. In the primary grades, children can be taught simple codes of behavior. Piaget points out that the preconceptual child is egocentric. Therefore we need to provide experiences in the primary grades so the child learns that the world does not revolve around his or her existence. A popular book entitled, Everything I Need to Learn I Learned in Kindergarten, by Robert Fulghum relates common courtesies necessary to function effectively in society. Observations of children in schools reveal a certain self centeredness. They come to school so poorly disciplined that this interferes with learning the importance of honest effort and the taking of personal responsibility for one's actions. There is no growth of the moral and mental powers of the self if the self alone is the ultimate goal of learning. Independence of an enduring kind, noble and practical, arrives only when one realizes what it means, in all its glory and responsibility, that one is not alone," [A. …

An Empirical Study of Student Relationships and Academic Achievement

Abstract: Past school climate literature historically has been related to two traditions: the investigation of school effects and the study of organizational climate (Anderson, 1982). One of the earliest concepts of a school's climate, developed by Halpin and Croft (1962), envisioned climate as the personality of the organization. More recently, (Deal cited in Gondor, 1994) perceives the school climate as the physical and psychological environment with a specific link to student academic achievement. Anderson (1982), in a review of the research on school climate, utilized an organizational taxonomy to address the issue. She compared a wide range of theoretical discussions, climate instruments, and models and concluded that school climate is the total environmental quality of a school. Viewing school climate as an antecedent rather than an outcome variable, school-effects research is concerned with the factors that affect academic achievement. This line of research examines cultural elements of climate, such as the norms shared by students (Miskel & Ogawa, 1988). Positive school climate has been shown to have an influence on student behavior, including achievement (Weishen and Peng, 1993). This study is examining a subset of climate, i.e., student relationships at school, and its association to student academic achievement. Are these student relationships related to academic achievement and are there differences due to demographics such as gender, race, or family environment? Method Participants The present study was conducted in a small town in the Southeast where the presence of a large state university had resulted in a bimodal socio-economic population. Participants were 241 high school freshmen, of whom 76 were Black, 158 White, and 7 were classified as other. There were 128 females and 113 males. Instruments The survey questionnaire consisted of items providing individual and family demographic information and responses to perceptual measures for each of the study variables. School Climate. The principle evaluation of school climate was done using the Comprehensive Assessment of School Environment (CASE) instrument. This measure was developed in 1982 by the National Association of Secondary School Principal's Task Force on School Climate (Keefe & Kelly, 1990). The CASE subscales were developed factor analytically and include the following subscales used for this study. Reliabilities for this study are presented in parentheses: teacher-student relationships (.84), administration relationships (.74), guidance relationships (.77), and student-peer relationships (.81). In a review of the CASE instrument, Leong (1992) indicated that the lack of scales to measure the climate for cultural diversity was one of the problems with the instrument. Therefore, a subscale for racial relationships (.66) was developed to examine possible discriminatory climates. These items were derived from a widely used instrument developed for the military (Landis, Dansby, & Faley, 1993). Academic Achievement. Because high school grades are generally viewed as indicators of academic success in school (Hagborg, 1992), in this study an overall grade point average from the semester in which the survey was administered was used as the measure of academic achievement. Procedure Data Collection. The survey questionnaire was administered to all subjects at the same time in the school auditorium to insure consistency of instruction (Heppner, Kivlighan, & Wampold, 1992). Because the participants provided their names on the survey questionnaire, confidentiality of individual responses was emphasized. Having the names on the survey allowed for matching survey responses with grade point average. Data Analysis. Zero-order correlations were performed to analyze the relationships between school climate and academic achievement. …

Toward Spirituality in Curriculum and Teaching

Abstract: Looking back at the fifties, the height of modern materialism, something quite profound began to happen to us in America. Many were achieving the house in the suburb and the station wagon in the driveway. But something seemed to be missing as many began to ask "What now?" Redfield (1997) points out in Celestine Vision that "There seemed to be a mass intuition that something more was possible in human life--a greater sense of fulfillment" (p. 1). Still, we were always striving to beat out the next person, and also at the same time we worried about what others thought. And so we suppressed the "What now?" question until the sixties arrived. Then, Redfield (1997) sees a crack in the well-defined life of the fifties and with the social revolution taking place in areas of race, gender, and the war, we again began to look beyond the materialism of the fifties and we began to look for a deeper philosophical meaning of life (p. 3). It was then in the early seventies that we looked to human encounter groups, sensitivity training, EST, and so on. Though we soon realized that once we were out of these groups all our fears and anxieties came back again, and whatever meanings we achieved in these groups they were lost once we got back to our daily lives. There was awakening to meaning but not a sustained one. Several people looked to gums and external sources for their meanings and continued to be passive in their personal search. But we did learn something from the seventies and that was that something more was perhaps spiritual. We saw in the eighties that people came back to the churches while others looked for spirituality in works like those of Joseph Campbell (1974). Historically, Campbell was able to show us that the spiritual realm has always been with us through myths, customs, rituals, art, and religions. It was also significant that during this time, some began to look for spirituality outside western thought to the eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Zen, and Sufism. As this awakening to spirituality was happening in the eighties, many still clung to the need for materialism, and "greed" was back in with big houses and fancy cars. The "Rich and Famous Life Styles" were back in the limelight and the renewed interest in spirituality competed with Junk Bond Kings. Insightfully, Redfield (1997) said this about the eighties: I've always called the eighties a return to the Wild West ... an attempted return to materialism and a renewed exploration of the spiritual both old and new--convulsed and competed. As we can see now in retrospect, all were attempts to find the something more that we felt was just around the corner. We experimented, pretended, competed for attention, raising much of what we did to the level of superficial fad, and, in the end we were left disappointed. (p. 5) Underneath all our discussions, whether it be the traditional spirituality of our religions or the great prophets of the eastern religions, we spent most of our time debating and intellectualizing without actively engaging and experiencing the spiritual, ourselves. Over the last three decades in education, specifically curriculum has also followed what has been happening in society. The subject matter curriculum with its characteristics of fragmentation, memorization, textbook orientation, teacher as controller, cognitive-based, and norm-testing is now being questioned. It is especially being questioned by those who feel that the modem, industrial efficiency paradigm is no longer relevant for today's curriculum. We seemed to be looking for something more in the curriculum. William Doll (1993) states this: "This concept of standardized norms lying within a stable-state universel lies at the very heart of the modernist paradigm. It also is a concept the post-modernist paradigm, on all its variations, challenges and rejects" (p. 54). We believe the subject matter curriculum is still caught up in the scientific management movement of the 1920s. …

Principal and Counselor Collaboration

Abstract: Constituencies in the United States continue their demands for school reform, schools attempt to educate a more diverse student population, and educators strive to contribute solutions to public educational problems as this century concludes. It is certainly imperative that those educational professionals "in the trenches" work together in a cohesive manner. The principal and the counselor could be working in a more collaborative relationship in order to reach the goals of each school. The purpose of this paper is to address how the roles of the principal and counselor have developed over time and to suggest how, jointly, they can be a more positive influence on the future of American schools. School Guidance and Counseling The school guidance movement, begun in the United States in the early 1900's initially emphasized the vocational development of students. The ideas of Frank Parsons, regarded as the Father of Guidance, focused on students understanding themselves, having a knowledge of various careers, and then comprehending the relationship between the first two aspects (Gladding, 1996). The vocational component of the counseling and guidance movement continued for many years, right up to the Soviet Sputnik crisis in 1957. The resulting National Defense Education Act provided, among several other programs, the support of guidance services in high schools. During this era, the number of school counselors increased from about 12,000 to 27,000 and new counseling theories were introduced that broadened the approaches available for counselors (Schmidt, 1993). During the 1960's and 1970's, school counseling adapted to the extraordinary changes that dramatically impacted all of society, and especially schools. For example, increased numbers of women entered the workforce, the Vietnam War raged, and the technological revolution began. The role of school counselors was changing, too. Counselors were increasingly hired in elementary schools and there was more emphasis on providing services for low-income populations (Schmidt, 1993). In addition, a collaborative relationship between counselors and teachers was established which lead to the current educational partnership still in place today. The original IDEA that legislated PublicLaw 94-142 influenced the role of all public educators, including the principals and counselors. In addition, the recent Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 further challenges schools to provide services for special education students. A Nation at Risk (1983), a report by the National Commission of Excellence in Education, alarmed the American public about the worrisome status of American education. As a result of being criticized for the lack of planned programming for all students, school counselors were included in the call to accountability. The late 1990's find school counselors faced with a wider range of responsibilities and opportunities to offer services to a diverse population of students. Generally, school counselors operate in a three-component model for providing services to students: education, career, and personal/social (Gladding, 1996). Balancing these services depends on the grade level, demographics, and overall goals of the schools. In addition, the school counselor has the responsibility to be knowledgeable about state department of education standards and mandates, such as the percent of time spent in direct and indirect services, special education and child abuse legalities, and college admissions requirements (Schmidt, 1993). The Principalship The history of the principalship dates back to European rectors and headmasters who organized the curriculum and supervised teachers, usually in residential settings (Hart & Bredeson, 1996). During the 1850's in the United States, schools were generally small; usually one of the teachers, the "principal-teacher," had additional responsibilities to organize the curriculum. …

Improving Undergraduate Student Involvement in Management Science and Business Writing Courses Using the Seven Principles in Action

Abstract: Student performance is the most important outcome of education. Moreover, in the early 1990s the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), a discriminating business school accrediting agency, modified its regulations. Consequently, the qualifying institution, instead of the accrediting body, could establish the appropriate institution mission and develop faculty performance criteria geared towards achieving the mission. Thus, for the first time, the institutions had some flexibility to adjust the performance mix of teaching, research and service to reflect the relevant mission of the particular institution. The importance of this AACSB modification cannot be overstated. Institutions of higher learning that had regularly rewarded research to the detriment of teaching, could now change their emphasis and develop goals and mission statements that reflect teaching as a priority. The goal of the College of Business at this University is high quality instruction. Although this has been a continuing theme throughout the past 15 years, teaching was re-emphasized as the priority mission three years ago when the College achieved AACSB accreditation. The goal thus is quite clear. We need to do whatever it takes to promote student learning and high student performance. While the goal is clear and laudable, its achievement is not easy because the typical undergraduate student is apathetic about education. The goal for many students is to achieve a grade of "C," get a degree and move on. However, this grade of "C" in a course typically suggests that the student merely met requirements to pass the course. Such an outcome is not useful to anyone. Students suffer because they can't function properly. Businesses that hire these students suffer because employees who lack fundamental skills are not productive. Thus, no one has gained. It is not difficult to understand reasons for their apathy. The typical undergraduate student becomes apathetic towards academics because of what they perceive to be unsurmountable hindrances in the pursuit of academic excellence. Hindrances to the Pursuit of Academic Excellence Over many years of teaching undergraduate classes, we have found that there are major hindrances to the pursuit of academic excellence at the undergraduate level. These are listed in Table 1. Table 1 Barriers to High Student Achievement at the Undergraduate Level 1. Need to juggle full-time work with academics and family needs 2. Need to balance needs of extra-curricular activities with academics 3. Low motivation because they perceive course work to be not relevant 4. Difficulty adjusting to different faculty teaching styles Managing the learning process is only one barrier to high student achievement. Carrying full course loads and balancing work and family responsibilities prevent needed student focus and concentration during class time. Typically our students enroll in three to five courses per semester. But, their responsibilities only begin here. In addition to carrying these course loads many students work approximately 20 to 40 hours per week. Students juggle fluctuating work schedules, new or changing jobs, work-related traveling activities and working overtime. Traditional, non-working students, occupy their time with extra-curricular activities such as involvement with student clubs, student government, community service projects and internships. It is a rare student then, who has but one commitment--to attend college classes. These hurdles are not likely to disappear. The consequent apathy and lack of motivation in the typical student prevent them from pursuing high academic goals. Thus, the first step for the instructor is to overcome student apathy and motivate them to become attuned to the important objective of high student performance. Over the years we have sought an educational process that would overcome student apathy and get them attuned to the objective of high performance. …

Minority Children & Their Over-Representation in Special Education

Abstract: Introduction A nationwide statistical analysis of placement into special education done by Kilalea Associates in 1980 (News Digest, 1987), based upon data from the US. Office for Civil Rights, has observed that "a minority student was found to be 2.3 times more likely than a white student to be classified EMR ... [Educable Mentally Retarded] ... 1.7 times as likely to be classified as TMR ... [Trainable Mentally Retarded] ... " (US News & World Report, 13 December 1993, p. 9). The corresponding national statistics for placement by retardation are: The distribution, of minority children in Special Education, is as follows: National Enrollment Indices It is projected by the US Bureau of Census that, by the year 2000, minority enrollments, in the United States, will be between 40% and 60% of the population of all children in our public schools. The enrollment projections would be between 57% and 60% for the states of New York and California. However, the projected minority population, nationally, would be about 33% by 2000 (Education Week, 1986). The greatest increases, for African-American children in public school, are in New York State through the Atlantic corridor including Washington, DC., through Georgia, Mississippi, South and North Carolina, Alabama and westwards to California. For Latino children, the largest increases are in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California (Education Week, 1986). In California, by 1986, African-American children were the majority of children in elementary schools. In Texas, in 1986, African-American and Latino children were 46% of students at all levels in the public school system. As of 1986, minority children made up majorities in the twenty-five largest school systems in the nation (Education Week, 1986). Relative California percentile ratios, in 1992, show that there is a 50.8% minority student distribution in a general student population of about 4.6 million. In New York City, in 1988, ethnic distributions and composition of public school children are: 34.1% Latino, 38.4% African-American, 6.9% Asian, and 20% Caucasian for an aggregate school population of 939,933 (The New York City Board of Education Report, Fiscal Year 1988; Cf., The Advocate, Winter 1993-Spring 1994). The comparative ethnic composition of instructional staff was for the early 1990s: 8.9% Latino, 17.6% African-American, 1.3% Asian, 73.2% Caucasian (The New York City Board of Education Report, Fiscal Year 1988; Cf., The Advocate, Winter 1993-Spring 1994). In Special Education, the aggregate percentile distribution of minority school children relative to others is 90% to 10%. The comparative percentile sub-ethnic composition of minority school children in New York City by aggregate public school statistics is: African-American 50%, Latino%, Asian 12%, Others were at 11%. Special Education Over-Enrollment & Comparative Cost Indices Nationally, US data statistics show a 20% increase in Special Education enrollment "from 4.3 million in 1984 to 5.3 million in 1994" (Portner, p. 4). Comparatively, the US population has increased by only 9.8% between 1984 and 1994 (Johnston, p. 2). In New York State, the Special Education student population has increased from 262,482 (1989), at 10.3% of the public school student population, to 347,126 (December 1995), in 1997 to 12.4% since 1.989 (The New York Teacher, 7 April 1997). Total public school student enrollment (for General Education), from 1989 to 1995, went from 2,548,710 to 2,777,876, an 8.9% increase (The New York Teacher, 7 April 1997). The 1995-1996 per capita cost of educating a Special Education student in a self-contained classroom in an out-of-district placement averaged $21,000.00 and ranged as high as $50,000.00 ... [compared with the] ... average per-pupil cost for a General Education classroom" which has been $8,900. …

Portfolios in a Preservice Teacher Field-Based Program: Evolution of a Rubric for Performance Assessment

Abstract: Introduction The evolution of a rubric for performance assessment review of preservice teacher portfolios as a requirement of the field-based model is traced from a chart of expectations, to a list of required items, to a detailed rubric over a five year period of time. A review of the current literature on types of portfolios and their contents are addressed and description of the process is presented. An education student in her last month of residency recently went to her professor and said "You won't believe what happened today! I showed my supervising teacher my portfolio and after looking through it for a few minutes, she put it under her arm and said let's go. The principal must see this! She practically dragged me into the principal's office and said `Look at this! I've been telling you we need to interview this student for our faculty. Her portfolio is outstanding.' After looking at the portfolio for a few minutes, the principal scheduled an interview with me and requested that I bring my portfolio." This is just one of many similar scenarios that have occurred since portfolios became a requirement of our preservice teacher field-based program in 1993. While the requirement has been in place for students to develop portfolios during their internships (18 weeks, school calendar, ten hours a week with the same teacher and students) and to adding to the portfolio during the residency (another 18 weeks, school calendar with the same teacher(s) and students) the expectations of what the portfolio should look like like and contain have evolved. In 1993, a chart describing a portfolio was included in the intern and have evolved. In 1993, a chart describing a portfolio was included in the intern and resident handbook of the pilot field-based program. In 1996 a checklist was created for interns and residents to follow as part of the fully implemented field-based program and required of all students. Now a rubric has been developed to define clearly the levels of quality when assessing the portfolios. The rubric is being piloted during 1998-99 in the secondary methods classes and will be reviewed in the spring of 1999. This evolution has been based on clearly defining the purpose of the portfolio for our preservice field-based teachers and setting expectations and specific standards of quality. Clarification was needed. The first portfolios ranged from scrapbooks which included baby pictures of the preservice teacher to very professional documents. They ranged in size from ten pages to six inch thick binders bursting at the seams. One student presented a two foot by three foot art portfolio fastened with duct tape (the zipper broke). When opened on a table top, it revealed a huge pile of papers intermingled with clay sculptures and smeared chalk drawings from seventh grade art students. The early versions of the portfolios did not require reflective comments. This has been the most difficult part of the portfolio for our students. Guiding questions are also being piloted to help them move in the right direction (Appendix A). With experience and staying current on the research on portfolios and their uses, a set of guidelines and a rubric to conduct a performance assessment of preservice teachers' portfolios has been developed. Literature Review According to the National Education Association (1993) a portfolio is a record of learning that focuses on the student's work and her/his reflection on that work. Material is collected through a collaborative effort between the student and staff members and is indicative of progress toward the essential outcomes. In education portfolios are a relatively recent phenomenon and their full potential is only now being explored. As recently as the early '90s, according to Linda Polin (1991), the use of portfolios for the purposes of assessment was mostly talk; since then they have burst onto the scene in a wide range of roles. …

The Relationship between Play and Music in Early Childhood: Educational Insights

Abstract: Introduction Plato remarked as early as 300 BC that music was the most powerful educational aid This could also be said of play Children have a natural inclination to sing and play, and these activities form a vital part of their development Babies and small children find music and play almost inseparable activities (Bridges 1994:36) Maxim (1989:304) points out that children in the early childhood phase enjoy playing games that they associate with music According to Lay-Dopyera and Dopyera (1997:396) many children first relate to music through movement Many children's songs lead to games such as Jack be nimble, Jack be quick and Jumping Jack jumps up and down (Bridges 1994:42) Maxim (1989:289 and 292) adds: "Just watch preschoolers as they play-they sing or hum spontaneously" He also refers to some children's urge to hum whilst they are playing A girl may for instance sing a lullaby whilst she is rocking her doll The importance of these sometimes neglected aspects Play and music are related activities and are important for the child's development to a well-rounded adult It is therefore very important that music and play should be included in the early childhood curriculum There are a myriad of definitions of play However, it is difficult to distinguish play from nonplay While most people intuitively know play when they observe it, play is not clearly definable and there are no definable criteria to determine which activities are play and which are not (Spodek & Saracho 1994:262) Although early childhood educators understand the unequalled dimensions of play, some of them unfortunately still question its place in the curriculum (Maxim 1989:220) Similarly, some educators do not understand the importance of music in the curriculum Often teachers even let pupils do their homework in the periods that are assigned to class music while they occupy themselves with other activities such as completing the attendance register Maxim (1989:221) gives a possible reason for this sad situation, namely that teachers "consider academic learning to be of primary significance for the early childhood program and regard anything that falls short of direct instruction a waste of valuable time" Sometimes parents can be the culprits because of ignorance Riley (in Maxim (1989:221) gives an example of some parents' warped conception of the value of music and play: "If Johnny was to get ahead he must not delay learning He could play on Saturday" Such opposition to play and music could be the result of people's dedication to a work ethic, or of the fact that the advantages of such activities cannot be observed distinctly and immediately The importance of contact with parents and meetings where parents could be informed about the importance of these activities should therefore not be underestimated Why do small children sing and play? The main aim of singing and playing is enjoyment This could lead to intrinsic motivation, because children like these activities Through play children express themselves: they explore, rehearse, practice-a natural way to learn, assimilate important knowledge and make sense of the adult world The teacher should keep this in mind when he or she plans learning experiences Play music and the development of children 1 Mental capacity and intellect Play and music are important for the development of children's mental capacity and intellect They also form the basis of language building Games accompanied by songs in a second language can extend the vocabulary of the child in that language There is also a connection between music and the development of mathematical skills Singing games such as Counting rope jumps could help a small child to understand how to count Although music and movement occur spontaneously in children, the process is not so simple as it seems, because it involves a capability to distinguish the various components of music (Maxim 1989:289) …

In Search of Equity for Arab-American Students in Public Schools of the United States

Abstract: Equity in excellence for all students is one of the major challenges confronting our educational system. The demands for focusing and directing efforts to raise the educational levels of the increasingly culturally diverse population have become one of the major issues in the educational reform movement. Arab-American students are among the new ethnic groups comprising the student population in the United States, however, they have been less visible as a minority. The Gulf War and its political fallouts made them more visible but in a negative way. Although the Arab culture and heritage are deeply rooted in early civilizations, misinformation and lack of information about their culture and heritage play a significant role in the formation of American perception and understanding of Arab-American students. Placed in the mainstream of classrooms, they are confronted by preconceived prejudices and biases about the Arab people created and nurtured by Hollywood movies (e.g., Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Aladdin, Delta Force One, and the Siege), jokes, cartoons, textbooks, and most recently video games. Research shows that a significant factor in students' academic achievement and social adjustment is the way they perceive themselves, their abilities, and their self-worth (Hamachek, 1995; Hansford & Hattie, 1982; Marsh, 1990). Research left no doubt that students' self-perception is influenced by the way others perceive them. Teachers perception of their students play a major role in the way they interact with their students, form their expectations of them, and construct and plan their instructional strategies (Woolfolk, 1998). Therefore, it is imperative that teachers in general and those teaching minority children in particular obtain knowledge about the background of their students. Teachers should develop the understanding of their students feelings and behavior, and acquire the skills to provide the scaffolding necessary for creating a safe environment conducive to quality learning. The purpose of this study was to look at and discuss a self-perception profile of Arab-American youth in the mainstream of the public schools. Some background information about Arab-American students will be included. Arab American Students: A Background Arab Americans are among the minorities who emigrated to the United States in search of the dream of freedom, tranquility, and good fortune. They differ from other minorities in several ways. First, they come not from one country but from 22 different countries in south west Asia and northern Africa. The terrain of these countries ranges from deserts to rugged mountains. Secondly, they are of different religious faiths. They are Christians of different denominations, Muslims of different sects, and Jews of different levels of expression of faith. These differences contribute to the diversity among themselves and play a significant role in the degree of their adaptation to the mainstream culture. Another difference is their language. Although they all speak Arabic, they have to be dilingual due to the diglossic situation in Arabic. The sharp variations in the informal language spoken in different Arabic countries make it necessary to use both forms of the language, formal (classical Arabic) and informal. Arabic language is a source of pride for the Arab people and to the Muslim Arabs it has an added prestige. They believe that Arabic was the chosen language that God selected to reveal the message of Islam and the Holy Quran to Prophet Muhammad. There are more than 200 million Arabs who speak the language, and about one billion Muslims throughout the world use Arabic in their prayers and other religious functions and rituals. Furthermore, Arab-Americans come from a multicultural world where their countries encompass multi ethnic, multi racial, multi linguistics, and multi religious groups. These groups include Arminians, Assyrians, Barbers, Blacks, Copts, Druze, Kaldeans, Kurds, Persians, Turkoman, and many others. …

A Personalized Development of Self-Concept for Beginning Readers

Abstract: EDUCATION We have heard a little bit about the "I LIKE ME!" program from the previous individuals Could you give us a more detailed description? Dr DeMoulin: "I LIKE ME!" is a special program that utilizes a personalized reader to deliver powerful "I" statements as positive inducements for learning and achievement to kindergartners The goals of this program are to: * Create functional school/business alliances whereby a strong, unified partnership between a school and a corporate sponsor is nourished over time; * Foster parent/child interaction; * Focus on improving the child's self-concept through the use of positive "I" statements; * Deliver anti-drug and anti-gang messages; * Instill a love for reading through a personalized approach; * Improve reading comprehension and recall (memory); * Demonstrate to the child that s/he can be an important, successful young citizen by the development of a healthy self-concept through literacy Although the main emphasis of the "I LIKE ME!" program is to strengthen a child's self-concept through literacy and his/her attitude toward learning, a secondary emphasis is to improve reading comprehension and recall, writing skills, and enhance reading enjoyment Moreover, the program builds positive interactions with the parent and child, the teacher and child, and parents and teachers while simultaneously increasing school/community partnership and involvement--a much needed, yet many times neglected, part of a community's responsibility in education One of my favorite quotes is, "As the twig is bent, so the tree in inclined" When a young tree is planted, it needs stakes to ensure that it's growth is straight and true and that is will withstand all the positive and negative elements that Mother Nature offers It is the same with children They need stakes to ensure proper growth and development These stakes include the home, school, and community -- all working together so the child can withstand the positive and negative elements that society offers The program is also supported by an increasing number of national educational/civic organizations that include: * The National Association of School Psychologists; * The National Head Start Association; * Kappa Delta Pi; * American Association of School Administrators; * National Association of Elementary School Principals * NASA EDUCATION You mentioned that the program is personalized Why is this so special? Dr DeMoulin: There have been a significant number of research studies conducted since the late 1970s using personalized materials to motivate children to learn and to enhance achievement The reasoning behind the use of a personalized approach is that it would make reading more enjoyable and inviting to children because it reflects things that are familiar in a child's personal life and hence, more interesting and meaningful Having stories that are meaningful enhances a child's motivation to read When this occurs, children become more receptive to reading stories that they can identify with, and the more they read, the more they have an opportunity to improve their reading and interpretation skills As children become actively engaged in the story, they display a heightened interest and an increased desire to improve their literacy skills In other words, children become focused which is a key ingredient for learning Moreover, through the use of personalization, children tend to play the part of the character making them heroes in their own lives With the "I LIKE ME!" approach, the child is the main character throughout the story and finds himself/herself combining new information and knowledge which s/he has learned to gain an active awareness of their development These positive experiences also enhance creativity in children as they journey, with two of their friends and their teacher, through the different dimensions of their imagination as related to individual story units …

Implementing Portfolio Assessment in the Development of School Administrators: Improving Preparation for Educational Leadership

Abstract: Introduction Portfolio assessment as an alternative means of performance evaluation is a practice that has gained acceptance and dramatically increased in use within educational programs during recent years. Use of portfolios in the assessment of student learning in elementary and secondary schools has been well documented. Many teacher education institutions have adopted portfolio assessment procedures for their prospective teaching candidates. Increasingly, school officials have incorporated portfolios as a component of their teachers' performance appraisal. Including the portfolio assessment process in the evaluation of educational administrators' leadership skills and accomplishments has become more popular within the educational community. Based on the results of these practices, it would seem that the use of portfolio assessment in the preparation and development of educational leaders could more effectively provide for accurate and authentic assessment of prospective school administrators' knowledge, abilities, competencies, and practical experiences which ultimately determine their potential for success in the field of educational leadership. This article is intended to provide a helpful description of one university's implementation of portfolio assessment in the preparation of educational leaders and to report the results of a study conducted to determine the prospective administrators' views and what they believe about the appropriateness and effectiveness of the process. Upon completing the coursework and fieldwork components of a preparation program, each novice administrator possesses a diverse array of skills, beliefs, and experiences. Portfolio assessment is intended to provide a more effective method by which to evaluate the leadership performance of prospective administrators. Opportunities are afforded for the skills, beliefs, and experiences to be more thoroughly analyzed and understood by the aspiring administrator, university faculty, and potential employers. This is facilitated as students take a much more personal and active role in the assessment process, as opposed to more traditional one-size-fits-all evaluation measures reflecting actions being done to students rather than actions done by students for themselves (Green & Smyser, 1996). Accepting the belief that portfolio assessment more accurately measures what matters most, the process has been successfully implemented at Auburn University Montgomery for use with prospective school leaders. Leadership portfolios allow aspiring administrators to demonstrate through genuine and practical evidence the skills, practices, and strategies essential to becoming successful, competent school leaders. The experience at Auburn University Montgomery has supported the adoption of portfolio assessment as a more authentic and meaningful process for the evaluation of students in the educational leadership program. Individuals currently enrolled and those entering graduate programs for the preparation of educational administrators will likely move into leadership roles as a new century arrives. Challenges faced by educational leaders in the 21st Century will be imposing as expectations are raised for improved performance and increased effectiveness in the operation of schools. In addition to a knowledge base related to theory and concepts, educational leaders need to possess a clear understanding of their leadership style, educational platform, professional strengths, skills, abilities, and the impact of these aspects on their performance. Preparation programs for educational leaders have a responsibility to insure that students gain such an understanding. Developing and using leadership portfolios certainly appear to be among the best practices for accomplishing this. However, before a conclusive judgment can be made regarding the efficacy of this process, the value and utility of the practice must be appraised by those most directly affected. …

A Caring Curriculum within an Early Childhood Teacher Education Program

Abstract: The process of caring is an integral feature of every facet of the early childhood education profession. As Bronfenbrenner (1979) has noted, the core value of this caring is in the relationships that adults and children develop through trusting, nurturing, and mutually respectful acts. The caring curriculum, as presented in this article, is represented by an ever widening circle of attentive interactions that include self, family, friends, and other people and human events (Noddings, 1992). The need for a caring perspective in early childhood education is based in the conception that "no society can long sustain itself unless its members have learned the sensitivities, motivations, and skills involved in assisting and caring for other human beings" (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 53). Early childhood educators must have experience that promotes the caring ethic as a primary value in their work with children and families. In an effort to attain a caring curriculum for students in early childhood teacher education, the University of South Carolina (USC) Early Childhood Teacher Education Program is utilizing a four-level, constructivist caring curriculum framework. This framework is structured with the purpose of assuring students a variety of experiences that will equip them with dispositions and skills to interact with children and families in nurturing and responsive ways. Students encounter caring on four levels: 1) experiencing caring, 2) practicing caring, 3) initiating and sustaining caring relationships, and 4) continuing reflections and refinements. Each of these levels of caring are interrelated with the others, providing students with intensive involvement in the caring process. Experiencing Caring As Erikson (1982) notes, the psychosocial process of development is continuous, linked to the person's experiences and to their reflections and actions on these experiences. Thus, students best realize their caring potential within an intentionally planned arrangement. The caring curriculum in the University of South Carolina's Early Childhood Teacher Education Program uses three means to promote caring in students: 1) faculty modeling of the caring process, 2) student involvement in courses and professional activities where caring is a substantive activity, and 3) student sharing of personal experiences with giving and receiving care. Faculty members model caring in a variety of ways as they work with students and each other. One way is through the advisement process where faculty work individually with students and respond sensitively to their needs. Informal student visits with faculty are frequent, providing opportunities for faculty to encourage, support, guide, and model the caring process. Formal student orientations, meetings, and counseling activities communicate to students that faculty view their relationship with students seriously. In-class interactions also demonstrate faculty responsiveness to student interests and concerns. Courses often begin with a short needs assessment survey so that professors can tailor assignments, lectures, and class activities to student skills and interests. Class content is structured to encourage student questioning and invites them to add their personal perspectives. Class meetings further personalize the instructional process, engaging students in expressing their ideas related to current issues and topics in early childhood education. This caring effort is also present in advanced programs where faculty collaborate with graduate students on research projects, mentor scholarly approaches to professional study, and engage in social exchanges that enrich everyone's sense of ownership of the program. Student sharing of personal involvement in caring activities occur often in courses and seminars. Faculty use inquiry strategies that invite students to keep personal journals, share these journals with each other, and to then reflect upon their experiences in light of course content. …

Student Feedback: A Tool for Improving Instruction in Graduate Education

Abstract: Educators of all levels of experience reveal an interest in strengthening their instructional skills and broadening their repertoires of instructional styles and strategies (Wilson, 1987). Understanding the uniqueness of particular teaching-learning interactions, and the individuality of the participants, we seek teaching methods that are flexible and would allow us to help students to be actively involved in their learning process. We recognize that models of teaching are not rigid and static prescriptions. Each model requires sensitivity and a continuous search for approval. Many powerful methods of teaching have been designed to bring about particular kinds of learning and to help students become more effective learners. One of them is a student evaluation or student feedback on instruction. Gil (1987) indicates that feedback and evaluation are related processes but not necessarily congruent. Gil defines feedback as information provided to instructors about their performance and recommendations for future improvement; while evaluation is viewed as information provided to make judgments regarding the worth of the performance (p. 59). In this paper we will use term `feedback' since it describes our intention more than `evaluation', and discuss one of the forms of student perspective on teaching which we have used for four years with our graduate students. During these years we analyzed student open-ended statements for comments related to the process of improving instructional performance and to the process of conscientious learning. The role of student feedback and their reflection on their own learning was a common theme and is the basis for the following discussion. The background There is no greater purpose for feedback on performance than to improve the performance (Seldin, 1984). Just as students need guidance from teachers to correct errors, professors need a helpful direction from students to improve the weak points of their teaching and build on strengths. Better performance is more likely if a professor is motivated to improve, and is open to receiving the student information necessary for improvement. However, student evaluation/feedback of teaching is a controversial issue (Tagomori and Bishop, 1995). Research literature (Centra, 1979) indicates that some faculty members are resistant to traditional, end-of-course, evaluation of teaching arguing that this type of evaluation produces results that lead nowhere. Some faculty express concern about the validity and reliability of evaluation data (McKeachie, 1987). Others view evaluation as a threat to their egos and some consider it as useless and harmful (Centra, 1979, p. 2). Certain instructors regard the classroom as their personal kingdom and any external movement is considered as an invasion of their legitimate privacy; other contend that how and what they teach is exclusively their responsibility (Doyle, 1983). We believe that student feedback on teaching is important when we search for instructional improvement (McKeachie, 1987). We seek a source of data which would help us to get to know students in the particular class and to identify their needs to facilitate their learning during, but not after, the particular course. Such data may be collected through student feedback on teaching and their learning on a regular base during semester. Our students Students who graduate from our College of Education receive either the Masters or the Doctoral degree in Education. They can be described as adult learners as defined by Usher (1985). Analysis of the collected newly accepted students' interviews, self-reflections and initial statements shows that our candidates enter the College of Education with widely varied backgrounds of experience and formal study and are driven by very different motives. They have already formed belief systems about learning and teaching, and strong assumptions about modern schooling based on their prior experience as students and professionals. …

Multimedia as an Instructional Tool: Perceptions of College Department Chairs

Abstract: Introduction A technological wave in pedagogy is beginning to move across the business school community. Advances in technology are increasing our capacity to communicate greater quantities of information to students in a manner that increases learning while providing a more efficient use of time (Holdren and Blankenship, 1998). As technology has expanded, the use of multimedia in an educational role has expanded, too. "The development of digital technologies impacts on the nature of learning and literacy and how educators respond to this change will affect the students' performance after school," according to Leu (1996). A level of frustration on the correct approach to revitalize classroom instruction exists in business schools. Many efforts have been made to computerize education but so far have not produced sweeping results. Many experts see the personal computer with its speed and power, combined with multimedia capabilities, as the new tool that can transform teaching in colleges of business. Multimedia has the potential to extend and enhance the use of interactive learning modules in teaching (Doughty, 1995). The computer industry is already moving away from number crunching and word processing. Technical publications are alive with multimedia information and descriptive concepts. Simply defined, multimedia is the delivery of information in a computer based presentation that integrates two or more kinds of media including text, graphics, motion video, still video, voice recognition, animation, and sound (Beckman, 1991). Integration through the personal computer is now possible due to high processing speeds and increased memory capacities. The computer simply reacts to software instructions to access a medium such as a laser disk file, retrieve information, and present it in the desired manner (Dvorak and Seymour, 1991). Multimedia will change the character of the personal computer industry and, therefore, its use. It will turn the personal computer into a personal communicator (Lippincott, 1990). Instructional delivery systems will be the exponential tool that will transform education in the same manner the tractor transformed agriculture and the airplane transformed transportation (McKeown, 1991). Multimedia instructional systems provide a way to educate in the same manner society provides entertainment on a daily basis (MacLean, Peterson, and Ackerman, 1995). Multimedia on the Internet enables it to look and function like the television, radio, telephone, newspaper, and magazine. According to Shaffer (1995) derivatives of the Internet video technology may one day offer alternatives to cable and broadcast television which network publishing has the potential to open the publishing business to anyone with a computer. Statement of the Problem If multimedia is going to provide a new pedagogical approach for instruction in business classrooms in AACSB schools, the perceptions and practices of chairs of the colleges of business will be important. These men and women leaders often influence the pedagogical approaches taken by their faculty. The objective of this study was to determine the perceptions and practices of AACSB colleges of business chairs on the integration of multimedia into the curriculum. Review of Literature Many experts believe education and training are distinct users for multimedia capability (Holden and Holmes, 1995). Multimedia is a natural for training because it can blend voice and movement on the screen to provide an almost human-like interface (Dvorak and Seymour, 1991). Many educators believe that well-designed simulations can provide an opportunity for students to apply classroom knowledge to more complex, realistic situations, improving the learning process. A real benefit of multimedia is that the student cannot take a multimedia course passively. The student must interact with multimedia as the course changes depth and direction (Olaniran, Savage, and Sorenson, 1995). …

An Exploration of Experiential Education as an Instructional Methodology for Travel and Tourism

Abstract: Introduction Many of the curricula involved in travel and tourism on both national and international bases are constantly seeking new forms of instructional methodology to increase their effectiveness. (Koh, 1995; Everett, 1994; Schubert, 1996.) Many of the travel and tourism programs are located in a variety of academic disciplines and units. This makes any discussion of instructional methodology more difficult because of the indigenous nature of the methodology of the discipline where the travel and tourism program is housed. Another common element of travel and tourism academic programs is that there is usually a practical base to most instructional methodologies. (Koh, 1995; Ryan, 1996.) A common instructional methodology used is the case study. The case study and its effectiveness directly depends upon the quality of the text being used or the quality of the case study that has been developed by the instructor. (Ertmer and Russell 1995; Harrison, 1990.) The most common type of instructional methodology is that where a text is used as a basic guideline and modified by the instructor. In a few incidents, several instructors have developed their own case studies but because of the time involved, this is the least common methodology. (Ertmer, 1995.) The primary advantage of the case study methodology is the active participation of the student in formulating and synthesizing a position and having a standard by which to compare their synthesized position to the ultimate solution of a particular problem raised by the case study. An extension of the case study methodology is experiential education. In experiential education, the basic framework of the case study is used, but the classroom is abandoned for the real world laboratory. (Atkinson and Murrell, 1988; Washbourn, 1996.) Most case studies have finite limitations because they are in a university laboratory setting and do not allow the complexity found in the real world. The advantage of experiential education is that the real world, in fact, brings many different types of variables into the mix. This introduces a complexity not able to be replicated in the university setting. This complexity, even though it makes it very difficult as an instructional methodology, is dynamic. This type of dynamism helps to motivate the student because they can see the direct application of theory in the classroom to the real world. This motivation is the primary element because the excitement generates additional new ideas and calls for direct involvement of the student as well as the group in the problem-solving process. Experiential education, to be effective, needs some type of structure, either qualitative or quantitative, to provide the guideposts to develop problem solving skills. (Jessup 1995.) Effective learning must begin with qualitative guideposts that provide intense discussion and allows the student to draw conclusions. The most effective is the quantitative guidepost that allows the student to discriminate various levels of action. In addition the student develops the discussion using levels of data analysis to make definitive conclusions which are effective in problem solving. (Harich, 1995; Griffith and Laframboise, 1997.) These conclusions are related to various types of variables that can be used in experiential case studies to make definitive generalizations. Experiential education process has to be built on a sound theoretical foundation. (Michelson, 1996.) The student has to have a firm foundation in travel and tourism parent sciences in order to perform effectively in experiential education. (Kolb, 1984; Hooks, 1994.) This may require several foundation courses before experiential education can be effective. Experiential education may be more effective in graduate education because the foundations for content as well as the necessary quantification skills for the manipulation of data are part of the student's repertoire. (Parson and McKay, 1985. …

Towards a new perspective on children's learning?

Abstract: This paper argues that recent English education policy has been influenced by external, economic and political factors, rather than founded on a valid understanding of how children's learning actually takes place. I will argue that the ‘performance’ model of education that has dominated the 1990s is inadequate in terms of its implied model of learning. I will review socio-cultural theory and propose it as a more valid conceptualisation. At some point in the future, I believe that the performance model will begin to collapse. An important task for researchers and practitioners is therefore to prepare a more secure alternative.

Adolescent Depression: Links to Academic Coping and Perceived Autonomy Support

Abstract: One major focus of adolescent research concerns their experience with depression. According to Peterson et al. (1993), a major impetus for this work is that depression stands out among psychological problems of adolescence for its impact on adjustment during the adolescent years and its long-term effects on adult functioning. An extensively applied theoretical notion in research concerning adolescent functioning suggests that the adolescent operates as part of multiple social units (e.g., the family, community, peer group, and academic setting). Moreover, it is very likely that an individual's perceptions of his/her experiences in these units provide an important perspective for understanding adolescent development. The primary purpose of this project is to examine the relation between depression and high school students' self reports of academic coping and perceptions of autonomy support from significant individuals (i.e., their parents and peers). To date, few projects have examined the link between depression and academic coping (i.e., a student's ability to deal with school demands). Ehrenberg, Cox, and Koopman (1990) reported that self efficacy correlated the strongest with depression (among the variables included in their study). Although coping was not directly assessed in their project, self efficacy is generally considered a very critical component of one's ability to cope. Specifically, when one's self efficacy is low, it may be more difficult to cope with the existing demands then when one's self efficacy is high. Thus, although not directly assessed in Ehrenberg, Cox, and Koopman's (1990) project, a relation between coping and depression is certainly a possibility. On the other hand, a number of projects have demonstrated the importance of parent autonomy support and involvement with respect to adolescent development, in general, and school achievement, in particular (see Melby, 1993; Rosenthal & Feldman, 1991). Specifically, when parents provide encouragement (e.g., developing and implementing a well-defined set of expected behaviors in a non-conflictual manner) students will work to achieve those standards especially when the parents are involved in the youth's academic experience. In fact, Connell, Spencer, and Aber (1994) reported that family support and involvement were highly significant predictors of school-related outcomes among African-American students. In work on adolescent depression, a number of researchers have found that positive parent-child relationships tends to shield the adolescent from depression. For example, feeling distant from mothers and fathers (implicitly suggesting the lack of autonomy support and involvement) places female adolescents at a greater risk for depression (Gouws & Huffman, 1994). Similarly, conflictual relations with parents (again, likely indicating a lack of autonomy support) are associated with a higher incidence of depression. Taken together, results such as these suggests that a strong and positive relationship between the parents and the adolescent reduces the likelihood that he/she will experience depression (Herman-Stahl, 1994). Further, these results suggest that a relation between depression and parental autonomy support may exist. With respect to the peer group, numerous projects have reported that well-liked and popular students tend to do well academically (Dusek, 1996). Although autonomy support from peers was not directly assessed in these projects, implicitly well-liked students have support and involvement from their peers. In that sense, a relation similar to the parent-adolescent relation regarding support and overall positive development may exist. Dusek (1996) suggests that the peer group can provide an environment that is conducive to academic success in which an adolescent is expected to abide by certain norms. Assuming that the individual follows the norms, the group can and will provide support which, in turn, enhances performance (Dusek, 1996). …

An In-Depth Analysis of Decisions Made by Kentucky's School Based Decision-Making Councils.

Abstract: The recent national and international wave of school reform recommending the local school building as the locus for implementing reform initiatives has led to a concomitant wave of literature describing and advocating site-based management (e.g., Brown, 1990; Cistone, 1989; Cole, 1993; Comer, 1993; Hannaway & Carnoy, 1993; Levin, 1986; Malen & Ogawa, 1988; Malen, Ogawa & Kranz, 1990; Sizer, 1992; Walberg & Niemiec, 1994). As mandated by the 1990 Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA), Kentucky's commitment to state wide, school-based decision making went beyond the advisory nature of some shared-decision making models. The Kentucky legislature gave legal authority to local School-based councils (Van Meter, 1991; Russo, 1995). With a few specific exceptions, all public schools in Kentucky were required to implement School-based Decision Making (SBDM) Councils by July 1, 1996 (Legislative Research Commission, 1994). Kentucky's SBDM Councils typically include three teachers (elected by school faculty), two parents (elected by parent members of the largest parent organization associated with the school), and an administrator (almost always the building principal). However, schools have the option of increasing the membership of councils by including more teachers, parents, and administrators in the three-two-one ratio (Lindle, 1992). The teacher and parent members of the SBDMs are elected for a one-year term and are eligible to seek reelection. KRS 160.345(2)(b) allows that after a Council has been elected, it can decide to have a different term of office not to exceed two years, but the terms cannot be consecutive in that case. The building principal, who usually serves as chairperson, is the continuing member of the SBDM Council. Under KERA, School-based councils are to set policy in nine specifically defined areas. Required training for members of SBDM Councils is available both within the local school district and from outside the district. There is a growing body of literature relating specifically to the School-based Decision Making Councils in Kentucky (e.g., David, 1992; David, 1993; David, 1994; Lindle, Gale & Curry-White, 1994; Logan, 1992; Logan & Byers, 1995; Wall & Rinehart, 1997). This study was designed to add to this body of literature. The study is the first to focus on the types of decisions made by the SBDM Councils in the state. The Purpose of the Study At the time of this study, the Kentucky School-based Decision Making Councils had been functioning for at least one year. It was the purpose of this study to describe: 1. The status of implementation of SBDM Councils in a stratified random sample of high schools, middle and junior high schools, and elementary schools geographically distributed throughout the eight service regions of the state. 2. The types of decisions being made by the SBDM Councils during the period of July 1, 1996 through November 30, 1997. Definition of Terms Status of implementation. This status was described by the following demographic information: (1) the year in which the council was formed, (2) number of years that the building principal had been principal of the school, (3) gender of the principal, (4) length of time of service of council members, (5) locale of training received by council members (i.e., within the district, from beyond the district, or both), and (6) frequency of meetings. Types of decisions. Types of decisions were defined by the nine categories of decisions delineated by KRS 160.345(2i) plus four additional categories added by the researchers: (10) budget decisions, (11) professional development, (12)procedural decisions, and (13) personnel consultation. Methodology Population and Sampling Technique The Kentucky Department of Education provided a list of all School-based Decision Making Councils in the state as of October 1, 1997. …

An Outsider Looking In: Total Inclusion and the Concept of Equifinality

Abstract: Introduction Efforts to integrate disabled students into the least restrictive milieu, generally the neighborhood school, are fast becoming the dominant educational ideology. The concepts of mainstreaming, integration and inclusion are now practiced as formal educational policy or legislation in most Western countries. More and more disabled students are placed under the care of regular classroom teachers. Consequently, regular classroom teachers are taking on more responsibilities and perhaps more students. To be effective educators, classroom teachers must adjust to the added responsibilities by assuming new roles, developing new competencies, becoming aware of the philosophy and process of inclusion, knowing the availability of resources and support systems and most importantly, understanding the nature of disabled students and harboring positive attitudes toward them (Chow & Winzer, 1989). When one is brave enough to run the theoretical gauntlet of including disabled students into regular classrooms, one will be bewildered to discover that there are basically two camps fighting for theoretical recognition. As a cost-cutting measure, administrators and politicians fling their supports behind the inclusionist camp wholeheartedly, while others believe that children with disabilities require individualized education--the LRE (least restrictive environment) camp. Advocates for full inclusion have been pushing hard to have all disabled children educated in regular classrooms, regardless of the nature and severity of their disabilities. Many school boards, ministry of education, and legislators back full inclusion because they see it as a golden opportunity to cut back on expensive special education services. These services have become a crushing financial burden because special education is about 2.3 times the cost of regular education (Chaikind, Danielson, & Brauen, 1993). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the pros and cons of total inclusion as well as to introduce the concept of equifinality to evaluate the worth of this approach. Positive Aspects of Total Inclusion Proponents of total inclusion see special education as more harmful than helpful. From a social justice perspective, these people (e.g., Gerrard, 1994; Wolfenberger, 1995) decry the use of segregation and institutionalization as a legitimate lifestyle strategy for individuals with disabilities. They point out that separating the education of these students is not only unequal but is also detrimental to the development of all students. They value social participation in the regular school setting as paramount. Staub and Peck (1995) agree that this setting is essential in promoting improvements in self-concept, growth in social cognition, and development of personal moral and ethical principles to foster warm and caring friendship among all students. As well, Vaidya (1997) concludes that inclusion into the regular classrooms "does not mean doing away with special education," instead, "it entails integrating the best that special education has to offer with regular education for the benefit of all students." (p. 622). Data collected from high schools and elementary schools indicate that general education teachers do not feel adequately prepared to meet the needs of disabled students in their classrooms, especially those with learning disabilities (Vaidya, 1997). Hunt and Goetz (1997) argue that the general education staff first resisted the idea of inclusion, then changed their opinion to cooperation and finally to overt support. McLaughlin and Warren (1994) determine that inclusion is expensive to implement at the start but it should become cost effective over time. Osborne and DiMattia (1995) urge school officials to take a more active role in restructuring educational systems so that inclusion can become a reality. They warn that if educators do not take the lead, the courts will! Negative Aspects of Total Inclusion Fuchs and Fuchs (1995) state that, "Many students with learning disabilities have learning needs substantially different in amount and kind from those of nondisabled children . …