Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2004"

Teacher retention: why do beginning teachers remain in the profession?

Abstract: As beginning teachers continue to leave the profession within the first several years of entering, educators must identify factors which cause teachers to remain in the profession, as well as factors related to attrition if the current teacher shortage is to be remedied. The purpose of this study was to examine the reported attitudes of beginning teachers in order to identify perceived positive aspects of teaching as factors which may lead to teacher retention. The sample, which comprised part of an ongoing study seeking to survey teachers within various areas within the United States, was composed of teachers from randomly selected schools in Georgia. The Professional Attitude Survey, a 10 item survey instrument designed to gather information regarding 21 characteristics related to teacher career stability, was sent to the teachers of randomly selected schools. Teachers were requested to respond to questions related to demographics, teacher background, reasons for remaining in the profession, and job satisfaction. Retention factors identified by the participants are discussed and recommendations for retention are provided for teacher education programs, administrators, and the community. ********** Continuing concern in the education field, as well as in the United States and society at large, is centered on the high rate at which beginning teachers leave the profession. Over the years studies have revealed that most teachers who leave have fewer than 10 years of teaching experience Many reports indicate 25%-50% of beginning teachers resign during their first three years of teaching (Voke, 2002; Fleener, 2001; NEA, 2001; NCES, 1999; Haselkorn, 1994). Other reports state that nearly ten percent leave in their first year (Recruiting New Teachers, Inc., 2000). While accurate measures of teacher attrition are important if school systems, administrators, and potential teachers are to effectively plan for the coming years, the need to identify factors which cause teachers to remain in the profession is perhaps of greater importance (see end notes). The purpose of this study was to perform a conceptual analysis of reported current attitudes of beginning teachers in order to identify perceived positive aspects of teaching as factors which may lead to teacher retention. Attrition and Retention Previously, educational researchers have primarily examined factors such as demographics, teacher background, professional environment, and lack of support systems which were identified as predictors of teacher attrition. The reasons teachers provided for leaving were less often due to insufficient salaries than to a lack of professionalism, collegiality, and administrative support (Bolton, 2002; Recruitment and Retention Project, 2001; Mills, 2001; Metropolitan Life Survey of Former Teachers, 1986). Additionally, while retirement and reduction of school staff were reported reasons for some attrition, the more frequently cited reasons were family, personal circumstances, and job dissatisfaction (Voke, 2002). More recently, disruptive students, uninvolved parents and invasive bureaucracy were identified as contributing to the demoralization of teachers (McDonough, 2003), and to influencing the inclination of teachers to leave the classroom. Today's teachers face an increasing variety of classroom conditions, including English Speakers of Other Languages and language immersion classrooms, inclusion and state mandated programs, as well as a need for increased knowledge and skills in such diverse areas as portfolio assessment, technology, cooperative learning, and a wide variety of specific instructional strategies (Potter, Swenk, et.al., 2001). The new educational conditions, goals, and reforms are compounding, for the beginning teacher, what is already a complex professional challenge. Teachers just entering the classroom experience "classroom or reality shock" and often mistake the uneasiness they feel as an indication that they have made a mistake in their choice of profession. …

Improving Teacher Quality through Professional Development.

Abstract: Introduction In order to achieve America's educational goals, it is imperative that excellent teachers be recruited, prepared, and supported in every school (National Research Council, 1999; Pikulski, 2000). Professional development, as defined by Hassel (1999), is the process of improving staff skills and competencies needed to produce outstanding educational results for students. Teachers are becoming recognized as the centerpiece of educational change; active and powerful change agents who have the power to make a difference, both individually and collectively (Castellano and Datnow, 2000; Hurst, 1999). Reform efforts must address core processes of teaching and learning if they are to markedly change what happens in schools. Teachers must explore implementation of research insights in their own classrooms regarding needs, interest, instructional history, and proficiency of individual students. Teacher beliefs about an innovation, its consequences, concerns, and contextual variables associated with it, are important in determining teacher behavior (Burke et al., 1996; Castellano and Datnow, 2000; Kennedy and Kennedy, 1996; Laine and Otto, 2000; Ros and van den Berg, 1999). Attitude, in conjunction with action, are critical change factors (C. Kennedy and J. Kennedy, 1996). Ultimately, the individual teacher determines the extent to which any innovation occurs. With that in mind, the best teachers never assume they have arrived, but constantly strive to refine their practice. Current Status of Professional Development Studies that focus on teacher awareness have found many remain seriously unprepared to address individual differences in many academic skills (Alexander and Lyon, 1996; Darling-Hammond, 1997; Laine and Otto, 2000; National Research Council, 1998). They are often unable to put together superior instructional programs due to deficiencies in their own knowledge, industry, and motivation (Durkin, 1987). This may be attributed to current teacher preparation practices for both pre-service and in-service teachers (Alexander and Lyon, 1996; Lyon, 1998). Professional development for teachers, administrators, and faculty play an essential role in school reform efforts. Far more time must be made available for staff learning and planning if reform efforts are to succeed (Laine and Otto, 2000; Sparks, 1994). A study of more than 1,000 districts found every additional dollar spent on developing teachers netted improvements in student achievement greater than any other school resource (National Research Council, 1999). However, districts are currently spending less than half of one percent of their resources on staff development. Many of those school districts are not directing their professional development dollars in a coherent way toward sustained, practical learning opportunities for teachers (Darling-Hammond, 1997; Laine and Otto, 2000). These observations are confirmed by surveys indicating America's teachers are usually provided too little professional preparation. Teachers may not be in the position to make the best judgments about what a particular child needs nor do they have the experience to keep the student on track (Report of the Carnegie Corporation, 1996). Though an abundance of material exists concerning what constitutes good professional development for teachers, existing patterns fall short of what is needed (Laine and Otto, 2000; Sparks, 1994). Staff development efforts have been found ineffective due to short duration, low intellectual level, poor focus, and little substantive research-based content. Plans are developed and implemented from the top-down, are outdated, lack follow-up, neglect teacher concerns and neglect connections to challenges teachers face (Bullough, Burbank, Gess-Newsome, Kauchak, and Kennedy, 1998; National Research Council, 1998; Sullivan, 1999). They are found to be largely unrelated to school mission and too often inconsistent with changes in curriculum, assessment, and proven best practices (Laine and Otto, 2000). …

Confusion regarding School Counselor Functions: School Leadership Impacts Role Clarity.

Abstract: The ultimate responsibility for the appropriate and effective utilization of all school-based personnel resides with the school principal. Finding the optimal marriage between the needs of a particular school and the diverse training and specialization of the school staff remains a constant challenge for school administrators. The imperative for optimal service provision becomes even stronger at times when fiscal austerity and new school initiatives are imposed at the Federal, State, and local levels. As reform continues in its process, the expectations for improved performance of staff continue to rise if schools are to be successful and no child is to be left behind. Although the appropriate utilization of school-based personnel has been related to student and school success (Lapan, Gyshers, & Sun, 1997; Miano, Forrest, & Gumaer, 1997), effective utilization requires clarity regarding the role and function of all school-based professionals. Such clarity of role has not existed for school counselors for some time, with strong implications for schools and the counseling profession, as well as for school leadership. This paper examines the confusion surrounding the role of school counselors, explores the related responsibilities of school leaders to promote increased clarity, and highlights an opportunity to effectively utilize the forthcoming American School Counselor Association (ASCA) 'Counselor Role Statement.' It is believed that gaining clarity on the appropriate counselor role may guide school leaders in the appropriate and effective utilization of such personnel for enhanced programs and services. This approach may ultimately contribute to the overriding goals, functions, and success of the school. Being a university mentor to neophyte counselors who are placed in schools throughout New York City is not unlike being the proverbial fly on the wall. Feedback from graduate counseling student interns over the years has confirmed the considerable diversity of tasks and functions performed by counselors in the various schools. This variety of activity may be attributed to differences in population, school level, and size. The literature suggests a deeper causality. There has been overwhelming evidence revealing the pervasive confusion which exists regarding any consistent role functions for professional school counselors. The appropriate and effective utilization of school counselors appears to be unclear, not only to students, but to practicing counselors, school leaders, and the larger educational community. Confusion on the Counselor Role Confusion and lack of clarity regarding the role and function of counselors in schools has been highly visible and problematic in the educational field for years. Observing the field decades ago, Lortie (1965) concluded that role confusion had been rife in the field up to that point. The intervening years did little to clarify the counselor role. A more recent review by Murray (1995) similarly concluded that the role of the counselor reflects a history of unclear definition and confusion. Others writers and researchers confirm the lack of clarity and report that recognition of counseling as a profession is hampered by role confusion (Poidevant, 1991), role conflict (Coll & Friedman, 1997; Coll & Rice, 1993; Van Sell, et al. 1981.), and by the inability of the profession to maintain a consistent role (Coll & Friedman, 1997). The implications of this on-going confusion of role and function are numerous. "The literature suggests that it is not only students who may suffer from poorly defined school counseling programs, but the very profession itself." (Ballard & Muratroyd, 1999, p. 21). Dire predictions for the field, as a result of this confusion, has come from many sources. Some have noted that the field of counseling is currently at risk (O'dell et al, 1997; ACA, 1987), a "Threatened Profession" (Tennyson et al, 1989a & 1989b), and an endangered species (Dury, 1984). …

Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction Levels of University Faculty by Discipline Type and by Geographic Region.

Abstract: Most organizations wisely monitor the satisfaction levels of their employees. Job satisfaction, for example, is related to employee motivation and performance (Ostroff, 1992). Job satisfaction is also significantly linked to employee absenteeism (Hackett & Guion, 1985) and turnover (Griffeth, Horn, & Gaertner, 2000). There is even some evidence that job satisfaction positively influences organizational citizenship behavior (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Clearly, job satisfaction is an important organizational variable. Pay satisfaction is a much narrower construct than job satisfaction. However, pay satisfaction is also an important variable that is linked to some rather significant organizational outcomes. For example, some evidence suggests that dissatisfaction with pay may lead to decreased job satisfaction, decreased motivation and performance, increased absenteeism and turnover, and more pay-related grievances and lawsuits (Cable & Judge, 1994; Gerhart & Milkovich, 1990; Huber & Crandall, 1994; Huselid, 1995; Milkovich & Newman, 2002). Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction of Faculty by Discipline and by Region A good deal of empirical research has been conducted on the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of employees in a variety of business settings. Very little empirical research, however, has investigated the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty in university settings (Oshagbemi, 2000b; Tang, 1999). Furthermore, no empirical research, to date, has systematically examined possible differences in the satisfaction levels of university faculty as a function of type of academic discipline (e.g., business, education, humanities, sciences, etc.), or as a function of geographic region in the U.S. Potential Moderators of Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction A number of individual-level variables have been examined to see if they exert possible moderating effects on employees' levels of job satisfaction and pay satisfaction. For example, research has been conducted that has investigated whether job satisfaction and pay satisfaction are influenced by sex/gender (Keaveny & Inderrieden, 2000; Mason, 1995; Oshagbemi, 2000a; Oshagbemi, 2000b), age (Kalleberg & Loscocco, 1983; Oshagbemi, 1997; Oshagbemi, 2000a), seniority (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992), and rank (Oshagbemi, 2000a; Oshagbemi, 2000b). Much of the research regarding the above-mentioned individual-level variables is contradictory and inconclusive. More research conducted in academic settings may help to eventually clarify the nature of the relationship of these individual-level variables to job and pay satisfaction. Organizational-level variables may also exert an influence upon the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty. For example, it is possible that the job and pay satisfaction levels of faculty members may be moderated by such variables as size (number of students), whether the institution is public or private, the presence or absence of unionization, and the overall salary level of the university. There is a lack of empirical data on the possible effects of these organizational-level variables on the job and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty. Some of these variables may prove to be significant moderators of satisfaction levels. We currently know very little about how these variables relate to faculty satisfaction. They may well have an important influence upon the satisfaction levels of faculty in university settings. Research Questions and Objectives The primary research objective of the current study is to provide more empirical data on the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of faculty in university settings. More specifically, this study will explore possible differences in job and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty as a function of type of academic discipline (e. …

Critical Thinking: An Extended Definition.

Abstract: One definition of critical thinking found in a general psychology text is: "Critical thinking examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions" This text also emphasizes recognizing fallacies in our thinking and listening (2) This definition; however, omits explaining how to examine assumptions, discern hidden values, and to assess conclusions Considering a conversant's/listener's or author's/reader's experiences; education; social, political, economic, and/or ideological proclivities; known or suspected biases and prejudices; and known or suspected motives might accomplish assessing assumptions, hidden values, and conclusions Warnick and Inch, communication scholars define critical thinking as "involving the ability to explore a problem, question, or situation; integrate all the available information about it; arrive a solution or hypothesis; and justify one's position" (3) This definition excludes specifying ways to explore problems, to raise good questions, to integrate available information, to arrive at solutions/hypotheses, and how to justify positions taken Problems can be effectively explored by seeking parsimony, clarity, lower costs, and greater consensus for their solution Good questions probe for more/better information and offer others awareness that the have been paid attention to The scientific method is a good start in arriving at quality solutions/hypotheses Positions should be justified on the basis of their cost, amount of collateral damage incurred, and analysis of the process taken to reach such positions Ken Petress, communication scholar and journalist, adds needed content characteristics to critical thinking; among these are: Evidence is rated, by the critical thinker, based on Sufficiency--is there an adequate amount of support for claims? Relevance--is the evidence presented pertinent to the issue at hand? Reliability--does the support for arguments have a good track record? Does evidence relied upon emanate from expert sources? Consistency--are supporting elements internally and externally consistent with each other and with what we know from other experiences, observations, and sources? Recency--is offered support current rather than being out-of-date? Access--are supporting materials open for receivers' verification? Are secret or anonymous sources avoided? Objectivity--are supporting materials fair and undistorted? Does support originate from expert sources? (4) These six criteria limit themselves to the content of messages; other criteria need to be considered for message organization, ethicality, consequence forecasting/consideration, ands content completeness Some additional factors influencing critical thinking and message reception/creation include: Are embedded terms clearly and completely defined? Are inferences labeled as such instead of being passed off as assertions of fact? Are ideas phrased concretely and clearly rather than vaguely, in abstract form, or with equivocation? Are messages coherent? Are discipline or situation dependencies explained when they occur? (5) Philosopher Richard Paul and educational psychologists Linda Elder have written extensively on the subject of critical thinking (6) Paul and Elder define critical thinking as: "That mode of thinking--about any subject, content, or problem--in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them" (7) Paul and Elder emphasize "asking vital questions," "gathering relevant information," "testing well reasoned conclusions and solutions," "thinking open mindedly," "recognizing and assessing" "their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences" and "communicating effectively" (8) Paul and Elder offer a list of what they call "elements of thought:" purpose, information, inferences/conclusions, concepts, assumptions, points of view, implications/consequences, and questions …

School Leadership Preparation Programs: Are They Preparing Tomorrow's Leaders?.

Abstract: The literature is replete with examples of how the role of today's school administrator has changed from that of a manager to an instructional leader (Lockwood, 1996; Fink & Resnick, 2001; DuFour, 1999; Hallinger & Heck, 1998). Principals are leading professional development activities, helping school councils make decisions by consensus, preparing and facilitating analysis of standardized testing results, and leading their schools in ways that demand a complete understanding of effective instructional practices. Top-down decision making is being replaced with opportunities for teachers, parents and other stakeholders to be involved. This requires a change in culture requiring principals to rethink leadership strategies and policies (Lashway, 1995). Teachers perceive principals who provide on-going dialog with the teaching staff and provide opportunities for professional development have a more positive impact on student learning (Blast and Blast, 2000). Are today's administrators prepared to be the instructional leaders that are required to bring about improved student achievement? The conclusion of the Policy Forum on Education Leadership that is only twenty-five percent of today's principals are prepared to be effective instructional leaders (Black, 2000). Hale and Moorman (2003) also suggest that leadership preparation programs are not providing the training needed for today's public school leaders. With the obvious gap between the readiness of administrators to be instructional leaders and the demands for accountability that school administrators face; in order to be relevant university preparation programs must complete comprehensive program analysis, identify content gaps, determine instructional implications, and align the curriculum to national standards. As a result of the reform efforts of the 1980's and 1990's many P-12 schools have completed extensive reviews of their course offerings and have aligned instructional strategies and course objectives to state and national standards. While faculty in universities enjoy academic freedom, it seems obvious that university programs must ensure that their graduates are prepared for today's challenges. This can be accomplished in part through curriculum alignment work, requiring expected course outcomes to align with applicable national standards, working with practitioners in identified effective schools, and putting into place on-going program assessments with strategies to improve those areas not meeting the needs of today's educational leaders. Method of Investigation In an effort to determine the kinds of practices in which today's school leaders are involved, a survey based on the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC): Standards for School Leaders was developed. Generic practices for each Standard were identified and respondents were asked to indicate the frequency in which they completed the practice. Respondents were divided into two groups, Morehead State University (MSU) graduates and non-Morehead State University graduates. Respondents were also asked to rate the effectiveness of their graduate training programs as it related to the identified practices. Respondents included school-based administrators (principals and assistant principals) and district-wide administrators (instructional supervisors, technology coordinators, assistant superintendents and superintendents). The data was not aggregated based on job classification. Appendix A provides a summary of the results. Results In every instance respondents indicated that the frequency of completing the identified tasks was greater than the effectiveness they had received in their preparation program. This was true for both MSU graduates as well as non-MSU graduates. In the ISSLC Standards, Standard One focuses on the vision of the school (Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSO], 1996). Respondents indicated that the vision very often (mean score 4. …

Gender Disparity in Science Education: The Causes, Consequences, and Solutions.

Abstract: Causes of Gender Disparity Although early literature addressing gender disparity attributed gender differences in academic performance in science and mathematics to genetics (Benbow & Stanley, 1980; Gray, 1981), the overall biological differences between men and women have been dispelled by researchers as possible explanations for disparity (Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990; Linn & Hyde, 1989). There is consistent documentation spanning over a decade that the major contributors to the gender gap in science are environmental in nature. Furthermore, these contributors all share one thing in common--they are influenced by society. Society can be defined as an organized group of people associated together for cultural purposes that influence all aspects of an individual's life. The differential treatment of females is grounded in beliefs that society has about gender differences. Sexism is built into our societal system and pervades our culture. Society undervalues the role of women, placing higher value on the traditional male role. Girls and women receive conflicting messages about their worth and place in our culture from schools, home, and the community. Science itself has traditionally discouraged participation of women. Science classes are traditionally competitive and do not accommodate a variety of learning styles. To add to the problem, there is an overall denial of gender biases in schools and in society (Graham, 2001). The following section discusses the major contributors to gender disparity in science and science education. They include the early childhood environment, the resultant science-related interests, gender stereotypes, family expectations, classroom management and instructional practices, testing procedures, instructional materials, and science itself as a discipline. The Early Childhood Environment Boys and girls are, from birth, reared under a different set of environmental conditions. Parents play more roughly and vigorously with infant sons than they do with daughters, and are more likely to react positively to assertive behavior on the part of their sons and to emotional sensitivity in their daughters. Boys are encouraged to be more physically active while girls are encouraged to be affectionate and tender. Boys tend to be given more freedom to roam the neighborhood, and they are not protected for as great a length of a time as girls from potentially dangerous activities like playing with sharp objects or crossing the street alone. Parents quickly come to the aid of their daughters, but are more likely to encourage their sons to address problems themselves. Thus, independence and initiative tend to be encouraged in boys, while dependence and passive behavior tend to be encouraged in girls (Woolfolk, 1998). In science, where discussion, problem-solving, and laboratory exercises are essential learning tools, these learned behaviors later result in science classrooms characterized by male-dominated discussions and laboratory activities in which boys perform the experiments and girls passively watch and take notes (Guzzetti & Williams, 1996; Woolfolk, 1998). Socially acceptable toys and play are different for girls and boys. Boys' rooms tend to be filled with sports equipment, toy vehicles, tools, and building kits. Boys' play tends to involve taking things apart and putting them back together, grouping objects, and manipulating objects. They develop a relationship with objects with de-emphasis on play that promotes relationships with people. Boys typically participate in activities such as building with blocks and constructing model airplanes, and often participate in sports that involve science and math concepts (e.g., figuring batting averages and negotiating over game rules). Girls' rooms tend to contain children's furniture, kitchen utensils, and dolls. They tend to use these objects to explore emotional relationships such as playing house, making up stories, and talking to dolls. …

Teachers' Perceptions of School Counselor Effectiveness: Collaborating for Student Success.

Abstract: As a result of the continued call for increased accountability in education, there is a renewed focus and interest in both school counselor education and comprehensive developmental guidance models designed to maximize school counseling services (Baker & Gerler, 2004; Guerra, 1998a; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Sears, 1999). Historical Perspectives Looking back at the evolution of the school counseling movement, it is easy to see how the role, functioning, and training of school counselors has been directly influenced by societal changes and fluctuating social concerns. In addition, media advancements, technological developments, and other events in the last few decades have once again set the stage for the expansion of services provided by school counselors. This expansion will bring with it a renewed emphasis on service accountability, forcing schools to continually reexamine their priorities and evaluate their productivity and effectiveness (Greer & Richardson, 1992; Russo & Kassera, 1989; Sink & MacDonald, 1998). This already formidable task will be further complicated by the fact that demands and expectations for school counselors in the 21st century will, no doubt, increase as the number of at-risk youth in America's schools is estimated to continue to strain the already sorely limited resources of educational systems across the country. Beginning with its roots in the vocational guidance movement of the late 1800s, the school counseling profession has always had close ties with teachers, the first vocational guidance counselors (Gysbers, 2001; Myrick, 2003). Among the more important events that helped to shape the profession were the testing and assessment movement, followed closely thereafter by a responsive focus on mental health services. The space race, an event of the 1950s, brought with it new concerns about inferior educational standards in America and led to the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958, which provided funds and the impetus for developing school counseling graduate training programs focusing on interventions with secondary students (Schmidt, 1993; Borders & Paisley, 1995). It should be duly noted that, at this particular juncture, university training programs actually knew very little about how to effectively train school counselors. Requirements from one program to another varied considerably, with no well-defined curriculum and minimal training in the core area of counseling. It wasn't until the 1960s that concerted efforts were made to elucidate the role, functioning, and training of school counselors thanks to amendments to the NDEA, which allocated funds to extend training to elementary school counseling programs as well (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000). Unfortunately, the professional road ahead was far from smooth, and some of the profession's darkest days came during the 1970s and 1980s when declining enrollment numbers led to a reduction of school counselors, as administrators cut positions to save money. School counselors and other supplemental programs were usually the first to go, and for the first time in the history of the field, school counseling became a profession at risk. Fortunately, several professional organizations including the American Association of Counseling and Development (AACD), the American School Counseling Association (ASCA), and the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) tackled this issue via the creation of several task forces designed to explore the state of the profession and to redefine competencies in the field (Baker & Gerler, 2004). This collaboration eventually led to ASCA's National Standards for School Counseling Programs, a guiding framework for implementing changes and reshaping counselor education curriculum for the new millennium (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Dahir & Goldberg, 2000). Current Trends Despite the increased focus and renewed interest in revitalized, comprehensive guidance models that emphasize a balance between prevention and intervention, task force reviews, reinvigorated national guidelines, and the continued call for increased accountability in educational standards and consistency among training programs nationwide, there is continued debate over problems with role ambiguity and a disconcerting lack of professional identity among school counselors (Burnham & Jackson, 2000; Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Guerra, 1998b; Johnson, 2000; Paisley & Borders, 1995; Sink & MacDonald, 1998). …

Harnessing the Power of Knowledge in Higher Education

Abstract: Successful organisations are knowledge-creating organisations, which produce, disseminate and embody new knowledge in new products and services. To this end, knowledge management enables organisations to improve efficiency and effectiveness mainly by decoding tacit knowledge into explicit information. This article focuses on the role of knowledge management in the Improvement of higher education institutions. Firstly, a distinction is drawn between data, information, knowledge and learning. Thereafter different models of knowledge management are discussed. The relationship between models of knowledge management, which focus on social construction and the creation and maintenance of a learning organisation is indicated. The importance of an explicit, systematic and comprehensive institutional approach to knowledge management is stressed. This implies an equal emphasis on people, technology and structures. Guidelines are proposed for implementing a knowledge management programme in higher education institutions. Finally, the benefits of knowledge management in higher education during a period of transformation are highlighted. Introduction Today the experiences, skills and abilities of people are coming increasingly under the spotlight and have emerged as the topic of an emerging academic discourse. The latter is aptly named knowledge management (KM) and has become one of the hottest issues in the literature on management. Consequently, the growing awareness of the value of the knowledge embedded in the experiences, skills and abilities of people is emerging as a significant challenge to improving organisations. The management of knowledge in the organisation has to be adopted or adapted by organisations if they are to compete successfully in the twenty first century. Intellectual capital has therefore become one of the prime sources of a knowledge-based and knowledge-enabled organisation. KM accepts that staff members own the tools of development through the knowledge they possess. According to Bryans and Smith (2000, 229), Hicks (2000, 71) and Rossett (1999, 64), this personal knowledge requires transformation into institutional knowledge that can be widely shared throughout the institution and applied appropriately to make it a meaningful developmental tool. For the purpose of this article the following questions are posed: * Is KM a management fad designed to keep consultants and conference organisers employed and to distract organisations from focussing on bottom line results and customer orientation? Or is KM a useful metaphor that supports organisations in the environment at the beginning of the 21st century? * How can KM be implemented in higher education? * Which challenges are faced by higher education who wish to implement KM? Certain key concepts are explained to answer these questions. Data, information, learning and knowledge With the growth in information technology a clear operational distinction can be drawn between data, information, learning and knowledge. Information is viewed as data in context and is currently believed to be captured, stored and transmitted in digital form. Information is not static or distinct but continues through a value-added phase as part of the internal processes by which individuals interpret their meanings of people, objects and events (O' Connell, 1999,33). According to Rowley (2000(b),9), this process is known as learning. Learning leads to knowledge, which is either tacit (embedded in people's minds) or explicit (stated as in formal communication or in documents). Knowledge supports and informs decisions, behaviour and actions. The final stage is the feedback from those actions, which may lead to further information and forms the basis for further learning. For example, the number '13' on its own is data. If a word is added like' 13 learners', it is still data. Once context is added, such as ' 13 learners enrolled compared with 200 last year', the statement becomes information. …

Storytelling: Enhancing Language Acquisition in Young Children.

Abstract: Review of the Literature Young children naturally enjoy stories. Children involved in education programs that utilize storytelling exhibit many positive behaviors related to increased literacy (Speaker, 2000; Allison and Watson, 1994). Improved listening skills, vocabulary development and an increased ability to organize narrative thought are all behaviors exhibited by young children who have been exposed to a variety of stories on a consistent basis. Storytelling has emerged as a key cognitive skill in the process of intellectual development (Kim, 1999). Cognition that is enhanced in specific ways when children are exposed to a variety of stories can also be measured in qualitative ways (Reed, 1987; Britsch, 1992; Mallan, 1997). Storytelling is also an effective bridge to emergent literacy (Rosen, 1988 in Miller and Mehler, 1994; Soundy, 1993). Since we know that children are active participants in the acquisition of language, the interactive nature of show and tell or sharing time in the early grades is actually a recreation of a remembered experience (Miller and Mehler, 1994). These tales are personal stories created by the children as a result of direct experience. The language patterns learned in these social contexts while children are interacting with adults and other children are constructed and reinforced as the teller becomes more proficient in relating the story (Strickland and Morrow, 1989). Reading stories aloud or listening and interacting with a storyteller are essentially a social experience (Britsch, 1992). Studies continue to confirm that the development of vocabulary and syntactic complexity in oral language are more advanced in children who are frequently exposed to a variety of stories (Roney, 1989; Phillips, 2000). The increases in attention span, listening skills, accuracy of recall, sequencing ability and fluency in writing have also been documented (Reed, 1987; Davis, 1982). A "sense of story" aids in the comprehension of the many different types of stories to which a child should be exposed (Golden, 1984). This concept of story sense is also linked to an increase in imaginative play (Raines and Isbell, 1994). Schema theorists emphasize the importance of framework in understanding text. The words that are chosen to express particular ideas, the order imposed to create meaningful sentences and then manipulated to show relationships and contexts all combine to create meaning for children (Cherry-Cruz, 2001). Robert D. Friedberg (1994) argues that storytelling is a developmentally sensitive tool that can elicit thoughts that create a more ordered sense of the world. He also believes that storytelling promotes expressive language development in speech in addition to receptive language development in both reading and listening. The research reiterates that active participation in the storytelling process increases the fluency of verbal expression in young children. The creative-predictive process involved when a child is actively involved in a story does strengthen the detailed aspects of language structure. Its value, however, is even more apparent when these techniques are implemented in a holistic way to refine language abilities. The story grammar that is introduced in storytelling and reading aloud becomes familiar to the child and is converted to later reading and writing activities (Cherry-Cruz, 2001). For young children, the correlation between storytelling and optimum language development appears clear. The use of storytelling with young children supports early literacy development and expands the creative literacy potential in young children. Methodology In this pilot study, the authors attempted to assess the qualitative changes in verbal fluency (vocabulary, grammatics. length of utterance and sentence formation) in three, four and five year olds who were actively engaged in a vigorous storytelling preschool program. The children all attended the campus preschool at The College of New Jersey. …

Adult's Perception of Field Trips Taken within Grades K-12: Eight Case Studies in the New York Metropolitan Area

Abstract: Introduction and Purpose Students have participated in school related field trips for many years Commonly they visit zoos, museums, and historical sites Although the average school district in this country spends approximately 2% of their annual budget on these presumed educational experiences, little research has been conducted to determine the effectiveness of these field trips on student's long-term interests, education, and overall perceptions Despite this expenditure on field trips individual school districts rarely conduct investigations into the effectiveness of these excursions According to Delaney (1967 p 4), "the field trip is education's oldest technique, it is also one of the least understood" This study attempted to add to the body of knowledge related to the longitudinal effects that these trips have on students (adults) in terms of their education, careers, interests, etc Gaining a better understanding of the effective or ineffective aspects of field trips would serve to better educate school districts on this subject and subsequently, enhance the field trip experience in terms of student academic and social learning Shedding light on the benefits or drawbacks of school trips could also be helpful to educators as they plan these educational excursions It would also be beneficial if school districts were aware of the longitudinal effects that field trips could potentially have on their students In past studies researchers have looked into the topics of memory retention, long-term impact, the novelty factor, and entertainment verses education issue, and student pre-visit agendas involving field trips This study of eight adults looked at those topics as well as the social aspects of field trips, advantages of hands-on experiences, perceptions of museums, and exposure to careers and cultures Review of Literature Museums: Memory Retention and Pre-visit Agendas Museums and other popular educational field trip sites invest large amounts of money in order to promote and support the value of school visits to their facilities In recent years they are becoming focused on making the experience connect with important ideas of the real world in order to have a long-term educational impact "Much of what an individual comes to discover about what he or she "learned" in a museum only becomes apparent weeks, months, or even years after the experience" (Falk, Dierking, 1997 p 2) In a study of one hundred and twenty-eight individuals, forty-six of which were adults, conducted by Falk and Dierking (1997), 96% could recall a field trip taken between first and third grades One hundred percent of the subjects remembered one or more things learned on the trip and could relate it to content/subject matter Seventy-nine percent of all subjects remembered whom they went on the trip with including friends, teachers, and chaperones This study revealed that field trips clearly create both educationally and socially related memories among the subjects Other studies have shown that pre-visit agendas strongly influence how much of an impact a field trip can have on participants' information retention "The better organized the trip--the greater the attitudinal change and retention those who participated in a well-organized field trip performed better on a test of knowledge related to the trip, than those who attended poorly organized field trips" (Hurd, 1997 p 3) Falk, Moussouri, and Coulson (1998) studied the effects of pre-visit agendas on museum learning "Visitors with a focused agenda plan their visit before they go to the museum; usually with a specific goal in mind" (p 2) They also looked into student's motivations when on a school field trip to a museum Some students viewed the trip as an educational pursuit, some students regarded the trip as entertainment while others perceived the excursion as a break from the class routine …

Elementary Teachers' Beliefs and Knowledge about Grade Retention: How Do We Know What They Know?.

Abstract: Introduction Years of research have shown that retention provides limited academic advantages to students (McCoy & Reynolds, 1999; Meisels & Liaw, 1993; Reynolds, 1992; Shepard & Smith, 1989), and yet the practice continues According to the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) (2003), approximately 15% of all American students are retained each year with 30-50% being held back before the ninth grade Retention rates have increased over the last twenty years (NASE 2003) as pressure to end social promotion has increased and satisfactory performance on newly introduced end of year standards-based assessments has become a new expectation for promotion to the next grade When decisions are made to retain students in grade, the primary goal is to remediate academic difficulties (Nason, 1991) However, grade retention is not an effective educational strategy for long-term academic improvement (McCoy & Reynolds, 1999; Meisels & Liaw, 1993; Owings & Magliaro, 1998; Shepard & Smith, 1989) Any small positive effects that have been seen with the retained students usually have not been sustained beyond a few years (Roderick, 1995) In addition, retention has been associated with a variety of negative effects, including greater academic failure (Meisels & Liaw, 1993; Reynolds, 1992), higher drop out rates (Roderick, 1995), and lower self-concept (Nason, 1991) Repeating a grade has been found to be the third most stressful imagined event in a child's life, surpassed only by going blind and losing a parent (Shepard & Smith, 1990) Teachers usually make the recommendation to promote or retain their students, with the final decision mitigated by varying input or pressure from parents and administrators (Kelly, 1999) Since teachers have this responsibility, it is important to identify and understand their beliefs and knowledge about retention Teachers' Beliefs About Retention Pajares (1992) has suggested that beliefs are the best indicators of the decisions individuals make throughout their lives Beliefs are different from knowledge (Enters, 1994; Shepard & Smith, 1989; Tomchin & Impara, 1992) and often described interchangeably as attitudes, judgments, values, opinions, perceptions, ideology, and internal mental processes (Eisenhart, Shrum, Harding, & Cuthbert, 1988; Pajares, 1992) Beliefs are relatively static whereas knowledge changes as more and different knowledge is acquired (Nespor, 1987) Teachers' beliefs appear to underlie their judgments about students (Fang, 1996; Tomchin & Impara, 1992), although many times these beliefs are interwoven with knowledge, making it difficult to separate the two (Shepard & Smith, 1989) Many researchers (eg, Shepard & Smith, 1989; Stipek & Byler, 1997) have identified teachers' beliefs about retention as a way to explain their practice of retention However, few studies have documented how teachers create their own belief systems throughout their teaching careers (Kagan, 1992) It is known that teachers rarely alter their beliefs based upon research studies they have read and are more likely to do so as a result of personal experiences or advice from colleagues (Kagan, 1992) Knowledge of research findings has been referred to as propositional knowledge (Smith, 1989) while knowledge from personal experiences has been labeled practical knowledge (Fenstermacher, 1994) Practical knowledge, "[I]s bounded by time, place, or situation To claim to know something practically is to claim to know something about an action, event, or situation in a particular instance" (Fenstermacher, 1994, p 28) This delineation is supported further by Calderhead's (1996) efforts to differentiate among different sorts of teacher knowledge It may be that straightforward questions about research results require teachers' theoretical knowledge, while situational questions activate their personal practice or case knowledge …

Manifestations of Learning Disabilities in University Students: Implications for Coping and Adjustment.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide a better understanding of students' perception of their difficulties and adjustments during university studies as compared with their past perceptions, to examine their coping and expectations, and draw some implications from the research to help students with LD in institutions of higher education Studies of adult students mainly describe their difficulties in three domains: academic, behavioral and emotional Following in-depth interviews with 30 students, We attempted to elicit the experience of disability from their perspective Students described their difficulties, the ways they cope, how they view their future and their adjustments while studying in the university Results indicated significantly fewer dependence on private lessons, improved their learning strategies, more use of special accommodations and more positive emotional functioning and reduced negative self-perception in adult students The contribution of this study is in showing the different perception of past and present difficulties and modes of coping, suggesting that although the academic obstacles do not change over time, the students learn to adjust to academic demands by adopting effective coping strategies, developing emotional resiliency, and through self-encouragement regarding an optimist future ********** The purpose of the current study is to increase our understanding of students with learning disabilities (LD) perception of their difficulties and adjustment to studying in the university as compared with their past perception of coping, and their expectations The number of students with LD attending colleges and universities has increased in recent years According to the US Department of Education Annual Report (2000) the number of freshmen entering college who reported having LD has increased since 1985 by 32 percent In Israel, institutes of higher education reported that 15 to 3% of all students have LD The definition of LD according to the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD, 1998), is based on a normal-range of intellectual ability and showing evidence of a below-average academic achievement score, including a wide range of specific difficulties in academic skills such as reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic or mathematics, difficulties in foreign language; evidence of deficits in cognitive process, including areas of perception, reasoning, symbolic representation, and memory; without any evidence of sensory impairment, mental retardation, or a primary psychiatric disorder Students' Difficulties Studies on university students with LD (Braxton, Milem, & Sullivan, 2000; Heiman & Parcel, 2003; Winter & Yaffe, 2000) mainly analyzed difficulties in three domains: academic, behavioral and emotional For example, students with LD described difficulties in reading; not being able to remember formulae, or to identify formulae by name, or to remember enough details to enable them to show evidence of knowledge, especially in writing They reported on insufficient time and difficulties in organization and in managing their time; suffering from a lack of energy to address their difficulties; and mentioned memory problems These deficiencies in academic skills may impede social adjustment and influence the individual's behavior or emotional adjustment (Barton & Fuhrman, 1994) Studies of college students with LD revealed that they had greater difficulty handling academic demands, adjusting to change, or adjusting to university life (Saracoglu, Minden, & Wilchesky, 1989) Students 'Academic and Social Perception Studies show consistent results that suggest that the academic perceptions of college students with LD are lower than peers' perceptions (Cosden & McNamara, 1997; Murray, Goldstein, Nourse, & Edgar, 2000; Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardman, 2001) In contrast to academic perceptions, only few studies examined the social self-perception of university's students with LD …

Elementary School Teachers' Perceptions and Attitudes to the Educational Structure of Tracking.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Since its inception as a nation, Americans have viewed education as a vehicle for upward mobility and the American people have affirmed this general belief many times in recent history. In 1954, the important Brown vs. Board of Education court decision articulated the fundamental idea that equality could be achieved through the schools and that all children were entitled to equality in the educational experience. This principle was once again supported by the social programs of the Johnson administration, which assigned a central role to education in the creation of the Great Society. Clearly, the meritocratic belief in schooling has always fit well with the ethic of self-improvement and the entrepreneurial spirit of the American character. Still, research findings since the 1960's cast doubts on the actualization of equality in American education. Less advantaged children are twice as likely to be held back in school and often fail to complete their education (National Commission on Children, 1991) and educational psychologists have identified the role of teacher expectations and instructional prejudices (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968) to help explain documented educational gaps. Rist (1970) notes that kindergarten reading groups are formed within the first few days of each term and that placements are influenced by student dress, vocabulary, and racial differences. Social class is also a factor in teacher expectations in studies conducted by Persell (1992) and Oakes (1985). Other researchers have addressed the role of socioeconomic obstacles, including funding per pupil, as factors in inhibiting equal opportunity (Kazol, 1991). While it may appear on the surface that school funding would correlate positively with educational outcomes, evidence suggests this is not necessarily the case. In fact, Coleman (1966) and others (Jencks, 1972) have argued that children's positions in school and society are determined more by family background and home environment factors than economic forces alone. Although it would be difficult to dispute the importance of parenting and the early home learning environment on future student and life successes, an alternative interpretation of Coleman's findings suggests that the disparity in educational outcomes could be explained, in part, by specific educational processes and structures operating within schools, specifically, ability grouping and "tracking". There is ample evidence to support the conclusion that the structure of the classroom could very well limit the academic achievement, and career trajectories of students (Ansalone, 2001; Hallinan, 1991). One such educational structure, tracking, is the focus of this research. Today about three-quarters of the school districts in the United States use ability grouping or tracking. To date, there has been limited empirical research on the mechanisms, which maintain tracking and account for its popularity in spite of the damaging empirical research, which has surfaced. While the role of a few key stakeholders in tracking have been identified (i.e. parents, principals & superintendents), little, if any research has recently been focused on the attitudes and perceptions of the classroom teachers who deliver instruction within tracks. This study presents findings on the attitudes and perceptions of 124 elementary school teachers towards the practice of tracking. We believe that knowledge of teachers' perceptions of tracking may assist in understanding how this structure remains so firmly entrenched in American education. ABILITY GROUPING: A BRIEF REVIEW Although the practice of tracking reached its peak in the United States in the 1920's, its origin dates back to the last century when the first segregation by ability and curriculum occurred in the public schools of St. Louis. Since then, educators have debated the relative worth of this educational structure. Proponents of tracking argue that it provides the means to more individualized instruction whereby all students are allowed to advance at their own pace with students of similar ability (Kulik, 1992). …

Developmental Psychology of Adolescent Girls: Conflicts and Identity Issues.

Abstract: Adolescent teenagers, who are undergoing the process of growth between childhood and maturity or adulthood, are usually thirteen to nineteen years of age. During this period of adolescence, biological, emotional or psychosocial conflicts are evident. Adolescents are learning to cope with changes while concerned with self-image, self-esteem, social expectations and academic achievement. They are trying to find out: (1) who they are, separating from their families; (2) what they are about, their interests and personalities; and (3) where they are going, in order to discover their place in adult life (Santrock, 2001). Adolescents are also confronted with career choices, romantic entanglements and responsibilities that are new experiences in which they may make decisions or adjustments to attain their own identity or success. They have to make choices, be successful in school and manage life to attain a healthy identity at the end of adolescence. Identity refers to the sense of self or a consistent unique character over a period of time. The additional responsibilities and social expectations adolescents face may create conflicts for them to resolve, while defining their own identities. Erikson (1968), a student of Freud and developmental theorist, depicted eight stages of life span development. His fifth psychosocial stage of human development, "Identity versus Identity Confusion", states that if adolescents are not given the chance to explore their new roles and cannot follow a future positive path, they may remain confused about their identity. Erikson (1968) included socio-emotional tasks into his developmental framework for each one of his stages. Adolescents need to be able to complete these tasks, find resolution to conflicts or adjustments and reach their unique identity. Santrock (2001) cited a study stating that adolescent girls and boys have a lower self-esteem from ages thirteen to eighteen and also that girls' self-esteem is twice as low as boys. Resolving conflicts during adolescence helps adolescents become who they will be, unique individuals, progressing further into higher developmental stages. Understanding early development may also help clarify the adolescent process. During early childhood, as children separate from their parents, they experience the individuation process of becoming independent. For teenagers to become independent, their self-concept and self-esteem have to be strong to overcome adolescent conflicts. Adolescent conflicts may manifest in discipline problems in school and an inability to focus on their studies or accomplish their school work. Self-esteem in this context refers to self-worth, self-respect or how one regards or feels about oneself; self-concept refers to perception about identity and achievements. Both play an integral part in the process of adolescent development. The critical time for development of girls starts in early childhood when they are separating from their female caretakers forming their own personalities. This process is the start of forming a 'self' or thinking of self as separate from the primary caretaker. The conflict for girls is to resolve this individuation or separating process while still trying to stay close or connected to their mothers. This process for boys is analogous to girls', but may not be as complex since the gender of the primary caretaker is usually different which makes the separation process easier. The primary focus of this paper is to present a psychoanalytical perspective on conflicts of identity resolutions experienced by adolescents. There are two major psychoanalytical theories (Oedipal complex and object relations) on relationships: (1) the sexual gratification theory derived from Freud's Oedipal complex where the sexual drive of obtaining his or her parent is paramount and (2) the object relations theory which shifts the drive from sexual to relationships as objects other than self. …

Reflective Journals: A Valuable Tool for Teacher Preparation

Abstract: Many middle-and high-school preservice teachers assume their role is to impart content knowledge. Diligently, they attend to the theory and practice espoused in methods courses. Education courses prepare pre-service teachers for clinical experience. How adequate is the teacher-preparation education and how can practicum students gain the most benefit from their clinical experiences? Reflective journals of practicum students can identify viable topics of concern for those preparing to enter today's classrooms. Causing pre-service teachers to reflect on clinical experiences can improve the quality of significant learning. A study conducted by Rowls & Swick (2000), reports the effects of reflective journal writing on teacher development as providing new developmental information to the teachers participating in their study: "I really gained a better perspective about relating to children different from me ... I realized I was trying to see the children within one mental framework--mine! Now I can see that each child comes from a unique position in life (p. 463)." Teaching experiences during clinical practice are helpful in preparing new teachers, but reflecting on the experience adds a critical dimension. According to Marie Doyle (1997), the pre-service teacher must reflect on and analyze what he or she saw, heard, and felt in the classroom through the practice of writing reflective journals. Using reflection on their experiences, pre-service teachers are able to "think about their attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions ... to promote self-evaluation and change (pp. 519-532)." Indeed, experienced in-service teachers seeking to obtain National Teacher Board Certification are required to conduct rigorous and repeated reflections of their daily classroom activities by videotaping their classroom teaching and by submitting reflective entries in a professional journal (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards). When addressing teachers and those in education, President Bush remarked, "Teachers will be given the opportunity to teach--to understand what works" (Bush, 2002). In order to learn more profoundly "what works," reflection is a most useful tool. The following article shares some of the discoveries (most-significant learnings) of pre-service teachers in clinical practice as they reflected on their classroom observations and personal experiences. The Pre-service Teacher Practicum Experience All students enrolled in the pre-service teacher secondary practicum experience were required to complete a total of 85-clock hours in the middle school or secondary school classroom. The hours required bell-to-bell, all-day visits to the classroom with an assigned cooperating teacher. Pre-service teachers enrolled in the clinical experience for one or two days a week, depending on the demands of their college coursework. All practicum students attend as many days of the week as possible until their 85 hours are completed. Those practicum students who have the opportunity to attend their assigned clinical setting two days a week will normally finish the practicum experience in a 5-week time frame. Those who can visit their practicum site only one day a week will finish in 10 weeks. Practicum students in this study are matched with classroom teachers not only in teaching field but also according to similar learning style. The Gregorc Style Delineator is the learning style inventory administered to both pre-service teachers and in-service teachers. During the 85-hour practicum experience, the pre-service teachers are required to engage in the following activities: * Attend secondary methods course one evening a week. * Participate, as a faculty member, in an extra-curricular activity hosted by their assigned school. * Complete personal interviews with administrators, faculty, and students in their clinical setting. * Teach a minimum of three complete class sessions, two of which must include cooperative-learning activities. …

The Absence of Diversity in the Academy: Faculty of Color in Educational Administration Programs.

Abstract: Introduction Educational Administration Programs have a challenge in recruiting a diverse faculty to train K-12 administrators and educational leaders. As we prepare students to become administrators and educational leaders, are we committed to ensuring that they are sufficiently prepared to work in ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse settings? Considering that the leadership roles in schools are most likely to be occupied by a White male, with the trend moving toward White females, can Educational Administration Programs honestly and effectively claim they are best preparing school leaders for these positions, with little and sometimes no assistance from faculty of color? (Capper, 1993; Lindsey, 2001). Administration preparation programs can no longer afford to prepare school leaders and principals who, in general, reflect a limited knowledge of a culturally and linguistically diverse student population. The need for Educational Administration Programs to produce culturally proficient educators is of most importance for the multi-ethnic, multilingual, 21st century population (Lindsey, Nuri-Roberts, & Terell, 1999). Therefore, there is a need to examine and explore the question of faculty diversity and the challenges that faculty of color face in current academe settings (Minor, Tierney & Venegas, 2004). In educational leadership, cultural proficiency is demonstrated in many ways, including how educational administration programs recruit, mentor and support, and evaluate faculty of color and how their presence impacts the campus and students. Faculty who are already in educational administration programs do not readily admit nor do they readily acknowledge that faculty of color provide various strengths, opinions, and leadership that are important qualities to an administration preparation program (Quezada & Louque, 2002). A sense of dysconsciousness permeates and justifies inequity and exploitation by accepting the existing order of things as given (King, 1991). So why not actively recruit faculty of color and diversify the current faculty to help prepare school leaders in administration preparation programs? The need for diversifying faculty is not new to educational administration programs alone. It is a nationwide challenge that permeates throughout all levels of professorships (Bjork & Thompson, 1989; Clemson, 1998; Colby & Foote, 1995; Garibaldi, 1992). In 1997, Whites made up 84% of full-time faculty positions, while Asian Americans made up approximately 5.5%, African Americans 4.9%, Hispanics, 2.6%, and Native Americans .4 percent (National Center for Education Statistics, (2000.) Nationally, approximately 90% of all university professors in public and private colleges are White (Colby & Foote, 1995). In the California State University system, where over 22, 814 faculty are employed, 76% of tenure-track faculty are White, 13% Asian, 7% Latino, 4% African American and .6% Native American (California Research Bureau, 2002). The percent of White faculty on each campus is higher than the percent of the White population in the respective counties they serve. Overall, the California State University faculty still does not mirror that of the students as it continues to have Whites represent 70% of its new hires (Muzslay, 2003). Presence Through a Systemic Approach According to Lindsey, Nuri-Robins, and Terell (1999), one of the essential elements of a culturally proficient faculty is valuing diversity. Diversity of faculty in administration programs would benefit all if it were systemic and innate and not designed as a legislative mandate (Lindsey, 2001). A beginning step for educational administration programs to build a diverse faculty involves recruiting, supporting, and mentoring faculty of color. The impact that faculty of color have on educational programs and the students is enormous. Faculty of color can enhance the overall quality of education at higher education institutions. …

An Analysis of Secondary School Principals' Perceptions of Multicultural Education

Abstract: Society is becoming more diverse than ever before in its history, and many of our school systems reflect this diversity in their student populations (Patrick & Reinhartz, 1999). For instance, today, one-third of the entire student population in America consists of minority students, and by the year 2020, one-half of all students in America will belong to a minority group (Patrick & Reinhartz, 1999). Due to this increasing amount of diversity that is taking place in our society and schools, school principals must play a central role in initiating and infusing multicultural concepts and ideas into school cultures mainly because these individuals set the cultural climate for the school (Decker, 1997). It should be the goal of the school principal to create a cultural democracy within the school (Stainback & Stainback, 1990). It is this cultural democracy that allows the school to become all encompassing and democratic (Capper, 1993). One of the basic premises of a democratic school consists of educational opportunities that are equal, which gives credence to multicultural education (Johnson, Dupuis, Musial, Hall, & Gollnick, 1999). According to Capper (1993), students who are "empowered" in school as a result of greater self-identification are more likely to be able to function within a diverse society (p. 289). An issue that many school leaders and educators have advanced regarding implementing multicultural educational concepts and ideas concerns the issues of who benefits from multicultural education. In reference to multicultural education, many educators and administrators operate on the assumptions that the school should possess certain characteristics within its population in order to benefit from multicultural education (Gay, 1995). According to Gay, "If there are no African American students, Latino, Native American, or Asian American students enrolled in their schools, they [educators] find it difficult to see the relevance of doing multicultural education" (p. 55). She further notes that multicultural theorists have indicated that school principals have an obligation to create an environment that promotes cultural diversity regardless of the amount of recognizable diversity in the school. Because of the increasing amount of cultural and social diversity that is occurring in our society and schools, school leaders must create environments that promote cultural pluralism and provide every student with an opportunity to succeed. Banks and Banks (1989) indicated that multicultural education no longer consists solely of the lessons about Martin Luther King Jr., or by incorporating different lessons about ethnic minorities within the classroom. Rather, the components of multicultural education represent the entire school; all the components of the school must be aligned with managing and valuing diversity. Review of Literature To many, multicultural education has historically and is presently seen as a program of study designed to reexamine how groups of color were being portrayed in history and to teach more factual content as it relates to groups of color (Gay, 1995). Today, many multiculturalists (Banks, 1996; Gay, 1995; Nieto, 2000) have reexamined the concept of multicultural education and view it in a totality perspective as it relates to the entire school climate, which would allow students to achieve their fullest potential. However, because multicultural education has had political liabilities associated with it since its birth, the task that many multicultural theorists face is to transform these political liabilities into "scholarly strengths" (Banks, 1996, p. 6). Proponents of multicultural education must be willing to engage in a serious debate with opponents concerning any farce attempts to debate the basic premises and concepts of multicultural education. Criticism of Multicultural Education Despite the evidence regarding the increasing amount of diversity in our society and schools, the idea of implementing multicultural education in our schools still generates clashes of opinions throughout our society (Gallagher, 1998), Furthermore, ". …

Parents as First Teacher.

Abstract: ********** "The American family is the rock on which a solid education can be built. I have seen examples all over this nation where two-parent families, single parents, stepparents, grandparents, aunts, and uncles are providing strong families support for their children to learn. If families teach the love of learning, it can make all the difference in the world to their children." Richard W. Riley, U.S. Secretary of Education On August 11, 2003, Johnny X. is born. By the time Johnny X. turns one, his parents will have 8,750 hours to provide supervision and care for Johnny. When Johnny is ready to start school at the age of five, his parents will have accumulated 43,800 hours of time for his development and growth. With all of these hours available to them, how will these parents engage this child to learn? Will they discover that it is easy to teach the child that the grass is green and the sky is blue and the difference between right and wrong, or will they decide that teaching such things is the job of a teacher? Each new school year Johnny will spend 1,260 hours with a teacher and 7,490 hours spent with the parents. By the time Johnny graduates in 2021, he will spend 16,380 hours with teachers and 97,370 hours (52,416 after accounting for students sleep average of 8 hours per day) with his parents: the parent to teacher ratio of time with Johnny is 76% to 24% waking hours. So, whose job is it to nurture, guide, and mold this child with the skills necessary to interact successfully with his peers? How will Johnny sustain his natural curiosity to discover the world around him, his innate sense of creativity, develop the patience to observe, and have the heart to be polite? Indeed, where will Johnny find the strength to resist the temptation of abusing an increasing supply of drugs, the ability to control his anger and avoid violence, or not become a teen parent? Parents as Partners with Schools A release by Connecticut's Parenting Resource (1999) confirms the obvious, active parental involvement improves student morale, attitudes, and academic achievement; thus, by taking on an active role, parents reduce their child's risk of failure academically and reduce the chances of dropping out before graduation. This release also states that when parents are proactive with their child's school, the student's behavior and social adjustment improve dramatically. The Child Trends Databank (1999) reaffirms these findings in its' report, and they take it a step further by stating that students who have active parental involvement have less destructive behaviors in school, including being less likely involved in drugs, violence, or teen sex. President Bush agrees so strongly with the findings of this release and report that he has instituted the "No Child Left Behind" act. In this act, President Bush takes the position that with a more active role played by parents, student academic success will increase when working closely with the students' schools and teachers. Even with the "No Child Left Behind" act, some parents are not choosing to up their participation in their child's learning, so with a lack of parental involvement in a students' education, how many students go further in their education? In the same study by the Child Trends Databank, 88 percent of the students completing high school with either a diploma or an equivalent stated they had strong parental involvement, 93 percent of students that went on to a vocational school or technical school stated their parents were strongly engaged in their academic growth, and 97 percent of students with a bachelors degree and 97 percent of students going onto to graduate or a professional school stated they had strong parental involvement in their academic progress. Let us consider the ever-changing demands and challenges on the parents of today's households and what affect might those changes have on the way they spend their time with their family? …

A Comparative Assessment of Constructivist and Traditionalist Approaches to Establishing Mathematical Connections in Learning Multiplication.

Abstract: Methods of teaching mathematics are founded upon and directly affected by the educator's investigations of learning. How students should understand and remember mathematics is of paramount concern to teaching at all levels of schooling. An agenda for the reform of school mathematics has been articulated with remarkable consistency by varied documents (Cockcroft, 1982; National Research Council, 1989; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989, 1991, & 2000). These calls for reform in school mathematics have focused on "mathematics as sense-making" and on the importance for all students in grades K-12 to study a common core of broadly useful mathematics (Janvier, 1990). They have also emphasized the need to promote instructional practices that facilitate what is generally called meaningful learning (Cobb, Wood, Yackel, & McNeal, 1992). The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) and Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (1991) published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) state that a broad approach to mathematics teaching is needed by teachers and students. The Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) advocates that mathematics learning in grades three through five must foster more than students' abilities to make sense of mathematics, which should enhance their ability to solve problems. These standards also suggest that learners be provided with the autonomy to select activities that blend with their interests and prior experiences to build mathematical connections through active learning using concrete materials. The standards are based upon the learning theory of Constructivism. Constructivism is supported by cognitive theorists, such as Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Zoltan Dienes, and Lev Vygotsky (Kutz, 1991; Fosnot in Constructivism in Education by Project Construct National Center, 1995). Notably, Jean Piaget's intellectual development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) and Jerome Bruner's learning modes (enactive, iconic, and symbolic) provide demonstrations of Constructivism in school-aged children as they progress from concrete to abstract levels. Although the Constructivist learning theory has become the focus of educational discussions and debates among many teachers, researchers, and mathematics educators, there is a question raised in terms of its classroom applications. Does this cognitive theory have any connection in terms of application to actual teaching and learning practices in classrooms? Likewise, why do traditional objectives, pretest and posttest formats of instruction continue to be utilized as common strategies in today's classrooms? Kutz (1991) indicates that, in actuality, classroom teachers tend to be neither Traditionalists nor Constructivists in the sense that they teach in ways that they were taught and in ways that seem to work. In order to elicit classroom teachers' active involvement in adapting Constructivists' instructional methods, the author believes that a strong, steadfast research study is needed to carefully investigate students' levels of mathematical achievement by comparing different teaching approaches with data that can be provided to support an effective learning theory and its practice for teaching mathematical concepts and skills. PURPOSE This research study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of two different theoretical models, Constructivism and Traditionalism, on third grade students' academic achievement in establishing mathematical connections in learning basic facts of multiplication. The main purpose of this study was twofold. The first was to investigate which instructional method, termed Constructivist or Traditionalist, would be more effective in third-grade students' conceptual development from concrete to symbolic levels and symbolic to concrete connections in multiplication. The second purpose of this study was to investigate which instructional method, Constructivist or Traditionalist, would be more effective in third-grade students' acquisition of multiplication skills, particularly in terms of remembering basic facts. …

The Impact of Training in Technology Assisted Instruction on Skills and Attitudes of Pre-Service Teachers.

Abstract: The research discussed in this manuscript was supported by a capacity building grant funded by the Department of Education, Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to use Technology Grant (PT3). The problem was to determine the effects of course work and field experience on perceived technology skills of teacher candidates and the attitudes developed by them toward the use of technology during this experience. Teacher candidates self assessed their technology skills with a pre and posttest skill survey (E-KIT). After completing course work and field experience, a randomly selected group of students took part in an interview to determine the attitudinal impact of using technology as an instructional tool with elementary students. Findings revealed an improvement in perceived technology skills and in the development of a positive attitude regarding the use technology to support instruction. INTRODUCTION Teachers have a desire to provide the best education possible for their students. The support and accountability to bring this about takes many different forms, the latest coming from President Bush with the legislative mandates made by the "No Child Left Behind Bill" of 2001. As teachers effectively teach "hard skills" such as math, reading and higher level thinking skills and "soft skills" emphasizing working cooperatively in groups and communicating effectively orally and in writing, many also focus on technological skills (Murnane and Levey, 1996). The addition of these technological skills has changed the intensity or level of teacher training needed for professionals as they enter the classroom. The full impact of technology on teachers and education often cannot be foreseen. Who could have predicted the effects of the printing press, the telephone, the television set, or the World Wide Web? Yet today, education continues to pass through an "expansive phase in which technology is being tried, tested, adapted and disregarded" (Trinble, 2001). To a great extent, this expansive phase comes about because of the inclusion of technologies within the learning environment of the classroom. These technologies provide teachers the opportunity to reflect on good practices, which help develop strong beliefs about pedagogy, contend, methods, and student learners (DarlingHammond & McLaughlin, 1995). Technologies have opened up a trove of resources that can readily be searched and accessed, not only locally, but also worldwide. As users, and soon to be providers of technologies, educators and pre service teachers need to understand educational applications of technology based tools. They also need to have the opportunities to learn, practice and be trained to integrate technology into their curriculum and instruction (Lanenburg, 1998). Rebsten (2001) advised that teacher training should focus on competency in using hardware, software and multimedia resources. Teachers should be qualified to instruct students in basic technology skills using tools such as Internet, multimedia applications, and CD-ROMs. Teachers also should be able to use electronic mail to communicate with parents and colleagues, manage record keeping and generate instructional resources. Because of these technology dependent skills and requirements, including learning technologies in teacher education programs is necessary. This technology training cannot be ignored if pre-service teachers are to enter the profession and the classroom as competent beginning teachers. To respond to the challenge of technology, a federal grant, Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology (PT3), provided resources to assist teacher training institutions to determine what training was needed to help pre-service teachers learn technology skills that could increase learning advantages for all students. Because technology training for teacher candidates might either facilitate or hinder their learning of the instructional process, the purpose of this research was to explore the following three questions: 1. …

To What Students Attribute Their Academic Success and Unsuccess.

Abstract: On a sample of 115 students we made investigation with purpose to answer the following questions: 1. To what students attribute their academic success and unsuccess. 2. Differences between successful and unsuccessful students in attribution of academic success and unsuccess. 3. Differences between successful and unsuccessful students in SATQ (Student Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire). Characteristics connected with the personality they consider as the most important for their success in studying. Giving up, inadequately learning and laziness they consider as the main point for their unsuccess in studying. The majority of items relate to successful students speaks of influence that is coming from inner factors i.e. personal characteristics of a student. Assessment by unsuccessful students depends on circumstances which are directed towards outside influence and is beyond their control. As the answer of third question we find that variables, which are the most present in defining a discriminative function are those ones that relate to automatic thoughts which speak of a worry about parents reaction and anticipation of failure. ********** Working with students who manifest learning difficulties there are many questions which have to be asked. One of these question is--how they explain their failure and success. Answers to these questions can help in understanding the cause of their problems as well as finding the method to improve effectiveness, success and personal satisfaction. During the relatively short history of researches in learning disabilities it seems to be rather strong agreement that one marker of learning disabilities is the presence of unexpected underachievement, that is a child fails to achieve at an expected level. That defines learning disability as a discrepancy between the performance on tests of intellectual functioning and the performance on tests of educational achievement (Kendal, 2000). Defining the term-learning disabilities Hammill (1993., according to Zivcir-Becirevic & Anir, 2001) argues that this is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. Should the learning disability be independent of emotional or behavioral problems? Research often finds emotional and behavioral complications in children with learning disability (Lahey, Green, & Forehand, 1980). As a consequence of repeated academic failure of learning problems, students often develop specific secondary characteristics as a low self-esteem, poor motivation for long--lasting learning, tendency to give up and withdraw and lack in interest in acquisition of new learning strategies. Besides this deficits in self-regulation many students with learning disabilities have also other characteristics which making learning more difficult: external locus of control, hopeless behavior, low motivation, impulsivity, maladaptive attributions, low efficacy (Wong, Harris & Graham, 1991). Bandura's model of self-regulation called self-efficacy is based on the idea that all voluntary behaviour change was mediated by subjects' perceptions of their ability to perform the behaviour in question. Another important influence was an increasing interest in the concept of self--control, based on a three-stage model of self-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement. This model generated a great deal of research effort in which cognitive constructs, including attribution and self-instruction, were made explicit (Hawton & others, 1989). Great many emotional disorders are direct consequence of irrational believes known as cognitive distortion. Irrespective of where some disorder has originated from its continuation defends on a significant role between cognitive processes and mutual constitution. …

Task Analysis of the Duties Performed in Secondary School Administration.

Abstract: Researchers on the job of principal have discussed the increasing complex nature of educational leadership. Some have even suggested why the principal's position is one that fewer and fewer teachers seek to fill (Fenwick, 2000). A recent report (Rayfield, 2002) suggests that the job of a principal is complex and difficult, and many duties of the principalship are not identified as positive factors in job satisfaction. This is to give an analysis of the job-specific tasks that were identified during the study. ********** Educational leaders are becoming hard to find. The shortage in qualified people seeking to serve in a principal's position is well documented (Fenwick, 2000; Potter, 2001, ODE, 1999). That the shortage exists is really not in question, however, we might ask, "Why does a shortage of principal candidates exist?" In a report presented at the NCPEA conference in Burlington, VT. in 2002, the satisfaction levels of principals, with regards to the many duties they must perform were reported (Rayfield, 2002). That report suggests that the job of a principal is complex and difficult, and many duties of the principalship are not identified as positive factors in job satisfaction. This is to give an analysis of the job-specific tasks that were identified during the study. Researchers of the various positions in the field of educational administration have discussed the increasing complex nature of educational leadership. Some have even suggested why the principal's position is one that fewer and fewer teachers seek to fill (Fenwick, 2000). McAdams (1997) describes a shrinking pool of applicants for the vacancies across the educational community. Many in the educational leadership research community have reported that the educational community is facing a shortage of principal candidates (Fenwick, 2000; Zellner, et.al. 2002). Fenwick (2000) has studied the national shortage of qualified people to serve in the position of building principal. Professor Fenwick offers two primary reasons for the shortage: 1. The people currently serving as principals across the broad educational community are reaching retirement age. 2. Fewer teachers demonstrate a desire to fill the vacancies in educational leadership. In a report from the Ohio Department of Education (1999) the notion of looming retirements of the people presently serving as principals and the potential crisis for the school districts in Ohio is discussed. This report indicates that nearly 60% of the people serving in the educational leadership role will be eligible for retirement in four years. Additionally, in Ohio, there were 237 people serving in the position of building principal were practicing under an emergency certification status (J. Nichelson, personal communication December 6, 2001). The notion that the principalship is a position that fewer and fewer educators aspire to is germane to the discussion. Why would teachers choose not to become principals? Sergiovanni (2001, p. 17) reports on the ever-changing role principals are taking on. The duties of the principalship continue to expand (Portin, Shen, & Williams, 1998). This expansion has created a situation in which principals have to make choices relative to the duties that will consume their time. With a recent emphasis on educational leadership and a reduced emphasis on managerial duties, principal preparation programs are training administrators for the position of instructional leader (ISLLC, 1996). Portin, et. al. (1998) provide evidence of building level administrators having to make difficult choices between instructional leadership and managerial tasks. What appears to be constant with regards to the principalship is that this role continues to expand (Sergiovanni, 2001, p.17). New responsibilities are added, however, no responsibilities are deleted. Sergiovanni's work on the complex and changing nature of the principalship may be frightening to many educators. …

Learners' Experience of Teaching and Learning in a Second or Third Language

Abstract: Overview and Rationale Political changes in South Africa have also brought about changes in the country's educational system. Reflections of the change in the educational system are becoming more evident in the schools and classrooms. Learners from different cultural and language backgrounds are found in the same classroom. This diversity and multilingualism poses a great challenge for teachers. One of the greatest challenges teachers are faced with is the teaching of learners who are being taught in a second or third language. Second language teaching is not an unfamiliar phenomenon and is in practice across the world. In America, where teaching is conducted mainly in English, it is found that more than one fifth of school going children are from families where the home language is not English (McDonald, 1991:2). A similar study has not yet been conducted in South Africa. Bilingualism and the acquisition of a second language are widely published in educational literature. According to Piper (1993:9) most children acquire a second language from birth through listening to their parents talking. Descriptions of the experiences of learners who are being taught in a second or third language though are not widely published in educational literature. South African schools are currently faced with the scenario where learners find themselves in classes where the language of instruction is different from their mother tongue. Although the South African Schools Act of 1996 regulates that the governing body of a school should determine the language of instruction for the school, this language policy cannot exclude learners from different language backgrounds. Parents who prefer their children to be taught in English may enroll their children in a school where the medium of instruction is English. Schools are thus expected to cater for second or third language learners. Diedericks (1997:1) describes English, in the South African context, as the common medium of communication because it is widely used in the media. Crawford (1993:8) highlights the fact that teachers should recognize the differences of each learner during the teaching process. Teachers should therefore also take into consideration the language differences their learners have. This is posing a problem for teachers because they are unaware of their learners' experience of teaching and learning in a second or third language. According to McLaughlin (1978:9) the learners' needs should get preference during the teaching process. The author points out that learners who are not fluent in the language of instruction are commonly identified as learners with learning disabilities. The emphasis is thus placed on the learners' language proficiency rather than the learners learning abilities. Piper (1993:18) defines the language of teaching and learning as an academic language that should be used for cognitive development. The author emphasizes that there should be a correlation between the learners' mother tongue and the language of instruction. Second or third language of instruction may cause a lack of understanding because the learner does not use the language as a form of basic communication. The language of instruction is thus not meaningful for the learner. A lack of understanding and the interpretation of the language of instruction also places unwanted pressure on the learner to make sense of the learning process. Byram and Brumfit (2000:352) describe making sense of the learning process as metacognition. This is the ability to understand the aim and purpose of an assignment. This research aims to explore and describe learners' experience of teaching and learning in a second or third language. Problem statement A concern was raised by the teachers from the two primary schools included in this study that the learners do not understand the language of teaching and learning. They were concerned about the ineffective support that they were giving to these learners to enable them to cope with learning in a second or third language. …

Teacher autonomy: Power or control?

Abstract: The article explores the issue of teacher autonomy in relation to its potential for freedom or control. It examines the concept of empowerment as applied to education, arguing that, although it is traditionally cast as a means of achieving autonomy, an alternative approach sees empowerment as part of the disciplinary apparatus of late modern governance. In exploring these issues, the article covers ideas such as critical education, the reflective practitioner and personal effectiveness from the view of teacher autonomy as emancipatory; and self-surveillance, disciplinary regimes and pedagogic identity from the perspective of control. The article concludes that the appeal of teacher autonomy to the profession must be tempered by the recognition that it has the ability to both liberate and deceive.

The "Nuts and Dolts" of Teacher Images in Children's Picture Storybooks: A Content Analysis

Abstract: A recent children's book shares the story of a teacher. Miss Malarkey, home with the flu, narrates her concern about how her elementary students will behave with and be treated by the potential substitutes available to the school. Among the substitutes represented are Mrs. Boba, a 20-something woman who is too busy painting her toenails to attend to Miss Malarkey's students. Mr. Doberman is a drill sergeant of a man who snarls at the children: "So ya think it's time for recess, HUH?" Mr. Lemonjello, drawn as a small, bald, nervous man, is taunted by the students with the class iguana and is subsequently covered in paint at art time (Miss Malarkey Won't be in Today, Finchler, 1998). In this text, which is representative of many that have been published with teachers as central characters, teachers are portrayed as insensitive, misguided, victimizing, or incompetent. We perceive these invalidating images as worthy of detailed analysis, based on a hypothesis that a propensity of images painting teachers in an unflattering light may have broader consequences on cultural perceptions of teachers and schooling. Our ethnographic content analysis herein examines 96 images of teachers as they are found in 62 picture storybooks from 1965 to present. It is our perspective that these images in part shape and define the idea of "Teacher" in the collective consciousness of a society. Those of us in teacher education realize our students come to us with previously constructed images of the profession. What is the origin of those images? When and how are these images formed and elaborated upon? It appears that the popular culture has done much to form or modify those images. Weber and Mitchell (1995) suggest that these multiple, often ambiguous, images are "... integral to the form and substance of our self-identities as teachers" (p. 32). They suggest that "... by studying images and probing their influence, teachers could play a more conscious and effective role in shaping their own and society's perceptions of teachers and their work" (p. 32). We have supported this "probing of images" by analyzing children's picture storybooks, examining their meanings and metaphors where they intersect with teachers and schooling. It is our intention that by sharing what we have learned about the medium's responses to the profession, we will better serve teachers in playing that "conscious role" in defining their work. We submit that children's picture storybooks are not benign. Although the illustrations of teachers are often cartoon-like and at first glance fairly innocent, when taken as a whole they have power not just in teaching children and their parents about the culture of schooling, but in shaping it, as well. This is of concern particularly when the majority of the images of teachers are negative, mixed, or neutral as we have found in our research and will report herein. Gavriel Salomon, well known for his research in symbolic representations and their impact on children's learning and thinking, has this to say about the power of media: Media's symbolic forms of representation are clearly not neutral or indifferent packages that have no effect on the represented information. Being part and parcel of the information itself, they influence the meanings one arrives at, the mental capacities that are called for, and the ways one comes to view the world. Perhaps more important, the culture that creates the media and develops their symbolic forms of representation also opens the door for those forms to act on the minds of the young in both more and less desirable ways. [italics added] (1997, p.13) We see Salomon's work here as foundational to our own in this way: if those images children and parents see of "teacher" are generally negative, then they will create a "world view" of "teacher" based upon stereotype. The many negative images of teachers in children's picture storybooks may be the message to readers that teachers are, at best, kind but uninspiring, and at worst, roadblocks to be torn down in order that children may move forward successfully. …

Learned Helplessness: The Effect of Failure on Test Taking

Abstract: This study examined learned helplessness and its effect on test taking. Students were given one of two tests; the first began with extremely difficult questions and the other started with easy questions. We hypothesized that those who took the test beginning with difficult questions would become easily frustrated and possibly doubt their intellectual ability. This would result in the participants missing easy questions when compared to those who took the test which began with the easy questions. The result of the study confirmed our hypothesis. The results of this study could also be applied to other classroom tests and standardized tests where learned helplessness could negatively affect test scores. ********** Learned helplessness is a phenomenon containing three components: contingency, cognition, and behavior. Contingency addresses the uncontrollability of the situation. Cognition refers to the attributions that people make regarding their situation or surroundings of which they are a part. Behavior allows individuals to decide whether they will give up or proceed with the obstacle set before them (Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993). When people experience learned helplessness, they have a tendency to give up easily or fail more often at somewhat easier tasks. Learned helplessness is more likely to result from situations where failure is uncontrollable. For example, Gernigon, Fleurance, and Reine (2000) conducted a study on failure in controlled and uncontrolled circumstances. They found that failure was more likely to occur in uncontrollable circumstances. Another study, conducted by Stiensmieier-Pelster and Schurmann (1989), addressed failure in terms of blaming the results on internal or external factors and how performance was affected by the response. They performed two tests on subjects and then rated their performances. The researchers found that the subjects who related the failure to internal causes, such as the task was intellectually too difficult for them personally, were more inclined to give up than those who attributed their failures to external causes, such as thinking that the test itself had impossible questions. Many factors load into the construct of learned helplessness. For example, the type of situation may affect the way that people respond to difficult tasks. If a person is forced to perform in public, factors such as anxiety influence performance. In learned helpless situations, performance deficits often result from low motivation due to the beliefs that the person is not in control (Witkowski & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 1998). Learned helplessness has an effect on a wide cross-section of people. Kashdan et al. (2000) applied the construct specifically to disruptive children. They compared mothers who experienced high-social anxiety with mothers who had low-social anxiety by placing them with an uncontrollable, deviant child in an experimental setting. The researchers had hypothesized that the mothers with high-social anxiety would be more distressed after the interaction with the child, and as a result, they would have many negative feelings. The measures of distress included self-ratings, observed mood ratings, heart rate, and blood pressure. In the end, the experiment and the experimenters hypotheses were supported; correct-mothers with high social anxiety showed a lower threshold for activated negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and irritability and less positive interpersonal engagement. Learned helplessness can affect one type of person more than another. A study conducted by Milich and Okazaki (1991) suggests that ADHD boys become frustrated more easily when confronted with failure than those without ADHD. Tasks were presented to 23 boys diagnosed with ADHD and 22 boys comprising a control group. The tasks involved solving word puzzles where in one condition the tasks were extremely hard and the others were relatively easy. …

Stress, teaching and teacher health

Abstract: Managers in 281 schools of all types in 20 LEAs in England completed a survey about teacher absence and its causes. This paper reports reasons for teachers' long-term absences in those schools, examining the link between age and ability to report for work. Head teachers' views on the impact of school stress on teacher attendance are also explored. For schools educating children between the ages of 3 and 13 (excluding secondary schools), the main reasons for teacher sickness absence, whether brief or long-term, are reported. These are considered in the context of what is known about stressful working conditions and their effects on both mental and physical health.

The Influence of Music on Core Learning.

Abstract: Glenn (1992) observed that music can hone creativity through participation in one of the great art forms. Leng, Shaw and Wright (1990) believe we can examine higher creative and learning functions through the study of music. Gardner (1983) identifies musical intelligence as one of seven basic intelligences. Therefore, music may help students learn more and more effectively. Music can make a significant contribution to all of education in terms of student benefits by enhancing key developmental goals such as self-esteem and creativity (Music Educators National Conference, 1991). Various studies and observations indicate that music can influence learning in core subjects as well as contribute to the attainment of core goals of learning. Weisskoff (1981) explored selected outcomes of using the medium of commercially-recorded pop/rock music as an integral part of the instructional package in language arts. Comparisons were made between alternate learning conditions-music and no music--with respect to task performance and continuing motivation. The central question to be answered was: What effect does music have on children's task performance and continued motivation in language arts? In other words, would music enhance or take away from achievement and motivation in language arts? According to Weisskoff (1981) students who received the music condition scored significantly higher with regard to continuing motivation. The definition of continuing motivation in this study was the tendency of students to return to and continue working on tasks away from the instructional context in which they were initially confronted. This was measured by a simple three-item self-report device and a three-point Likert-type scale reflecting teacher perception of typical student behavior. In reference to task performance, there were no significant main effects or inter actions obtained. The music condition did not enhance achievement. This study clearly answered questions concerning the theory that music does serve as a motivational force for children. However, it has been found that background music during tasks does not enhance achievement. Music was found to serve neither as a positive force nor as a distraction to achievement. This finding is of particular interest in light of the significant relationship demonstrated between music and continuing motivation. The study pointed out that, students who were almost always unmotivated became motivated because of music. Tucker (1981) compiled several reports concerning music and the teaching of reading. He reported that using music in teaching reading may enhance motivation and abilities of children, whether or not they are musically talented or intellectually above average. The back to basics approach to education is an important reason why music should be fused with reading in order to enhance the effectiveness of reading instruction. Many similarities exist between music and reading. Both use a symbol structure that can be decoded into sounds that have meaning. Visual and auditory discrimination are required in both subjects and are oriented to a left-to-right framework. According to Cohen-Taylor (1981), popular song lyrics used as reading materials caused middle grades students to approach printed materials in a positive manner. Students had been approaching reading materials with apathy. However, when song sheets were introduced, students immediately became enthusiastic and excited about using lyrics as reading materials. Reading skills can be effectively taught using popular song lyrics. Some suggested activities involve working with word cards featuring favorite words of favorite songs, forming new sentences from words in favorite songs, guessing first lines of songs for which the teacher has supplied word configuration clues and creating crossword puzzles in which the entries are words in song titles. A study done by Brunk (1981) validated the effectiveness of a socio-music curriculum. …

Learning the Skill Theme Approach: Salient and Problematic Aspects of Pedagogical Content Knowledge.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe salient aspects of pedagogical content knowledge that preservice physical education teachers acquired and found problematic while learning a specific skill theme approach (Graham, Holt/Hale, & Parker, 1993) to teaching elementary physical education during their field-based methods course. The participants were four preservice teachers who were taking the field-based elementary methods course at a major university. Data were collected by conducting 15 weeks of observations while taking field notes, informal and formal interview with transcripts, and document collection. The findings indicated that the preservice teachers came to value the objectives of this specific skill theme approach, understood relationships among movement concepts and children's skill levels, and attempted to present movement variety and refining tasks simultaneously. However, the preservice teachers had problems associated with responding to students' inappropriate and limited movement responses. ********** Since Shulman (1986) proposed a conceptual framework of knowledge base for effective teaching, developing preservice teachers' pedagogical content knowledge has received substantial attention among researchers and teacher educators in physical education (Ennis, 1991 ; Graber, 1995; Rovegno, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1998; Sebren, 1995). This is because the nature of pedagogical content knowledge reflects the major goal of teacher education that equips preservice teachers with knowledge about content and knowledge about how to teach that content to students at different developmental levels. The integration of content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge is a unique professional knowledge base for teachers, known as pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986, Grossman, 1990). Research on Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Elementary Physical Education Teaching Researchers in physical education have begun investigating the development of preservice and inservice teachers' pedagogical content knowledge within a specific context of teacher education programs that have adopted movement approaches to teaching elementary physical education (Ennis, 1991; Rovegno, 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1998; Sebren, 1995). Studies by Rovegno (1992, 1993a, 1993b) revealed that some aspects of pedagogical content knowledge were initially difficult and problematic for preservice teachers to learn. For example, the preservice teachers tended to plan isolated lesson contents without organizing them into a progressive sequence because they lacked understanding of the whole picture of the meaningful movement approach developed by Young, Klesius, and Hoffman (1994). Due to the fact that the preservice teachers had inadequate knowledge of children's understanding and developmental levels, they were unable to anticipate how children learned content and what types of learning tasks were more difficult or easier for children. They were also unable to interpret how children's developmental levels influenced their responses to movement tasks. When responding to children's learning, the preservice teachers thought they could not provide children with any specific performance feedback when the children were participating in exploratory movement tasks. They initially equated teaching movement approach lessons with teaching by not telling and not intervening. Studies by Rovegno (1993a) and Sebren (1995), however, reported that preservice teachers' beliefs and knowledge about some aspects of movement approaches were qualitatively changed and constructed through learning in field-based methods courses and related courses. For example, Rovegno (1993a) found that the preservice teachers came to realize that developing students' self-responsibilities and cooperative abilities was one of the major goals for the meaningful movement approach. They recognized that developing students' skillful performance was central to movement approach lessons. …