Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2006"

Exploring social constructivism: Theories and practicalities

Abstract: In the drive to improve standards, the collection and dissemination of numerical data still directs much contemporary educational policy. However, recent publications and debates seemingly attempt to reorient discussion from performance to learning. In support, constructivism is often referenced as a contributor in this endeavour. However, constructivism is not a single unified theory either of knowledge or pedagogy. This article identifies one version of constructivist thinking, social constructivism, both in terms of its underlying epistemology (theory of knowledge) and related pedagogy. Contemporary educational theories are then outlined to demonstrate that many practical solutions and theoretical ideas now presented as ‘good learning and teaching’ have much in common with social constructivist thinking. Finally, the article concludes by identifying two issues that require further discussion and debate if pedagogy of a social constructivist nature is to be considered.

Perceptions of Parents of Students with Autism towards the IEP Meeting: A Case Study of One Family Support Group Chapter.

Abstract: The individualized education program (IEP) was the primary component of Part B of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and has maintained importance through the reauthorization of IDEA 2004. The IEP serves to direct and monitor all components of a student's special education program. These components include educational needs, goals and objectives, placement, evaluation criteria, present levels of educational performance, and duration of programming modifications. (Drasgow, Yell, & Robinson, 2001; H. Res. 5, 1997). The IEP functions as the blueprint for the delivery of services to be provided for students receiving special education services, as IEP regulations identify meeting dates, parental and student consent and accountability, as well as responsibilities of educational agencies (Huefner, 2000). Despite the fact that parent participation is mandated by law, legislation alone is not enough to get parents involved in schools (Deslandes, Royer, Potvin, & Leclerc, 1999; Valle & Aponte, 2002). Parental roles have not increased in IEP meetings, and positive relationships between parents and educators have not been ensured despite the conceptualization and intent of the law under EL. 94-142 (Simpson, 1996). Rock (2000) labeled the traditional IEP meeting as a "meaningless ritual," as educators implement and expect parents to approve pre-determined educational programs. Decreased parental feedback and participation towards IEP meetings have facilitated legally inappropriate and educationally unsound educational programs for students receiving special education services. After analyzing forty-five public due process hearings, Yell and Drasgow (2000) concluded that many schools failed to develop educationally beneficial and legally valid IEPs. These court cases involved parents of students with autism challenging school districts. Several school districts lost court cases due to making procedural errors by not making parents equal partners in IEP meetings. Substantive errors included lack of individual programming to identify student needs and determining placement for students prior to determining goals and objectives is a violation that educators frequently practice during IEP meetings (Drasgow et al., 2001). Many parents feel guilty, intimidated, disenfranchised, and alienated towards educational systems (Goldstein, 1993; Kroth & Edge, 1997). Parents often view the IEP meeting as an opportunity for educators to brief them on the failures of their child. Parents are therefore, embarrassed to encounter educators resulting in their providing little input during IEP meetings. Passive participation among parents towards the IEP process is likely to hinder productive planning of a student's education (Werts, Mamlin, & Pogoloff, 2002). Many parents feel ill-equipped to address the educational needs of their children as they are unable to understand special education jargon and terminology (Goldstein, 1993; Lytle & Bordin, 2001). Parents are at a disadvantage as they often lack the expertise of their professional counterparts. Parents who feel ill equipped in making educational decisions regarding their children allow educators to easily convince parents that decision-making should be left to them (Rock, 2000). While some parents choose to limit participation, many other parents believe that educators deter participation. Despite the emphasis of family-centered interactions towards educational planning under IDEA, education professionals still tend to dominate the decision-making process in educational planning (Dabkowski, 2004; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1997). Parents believe that some educators fail to understand the significance of parental participation, as many have been unsuccessful in promoting positive collaboration and facilitating successful parental involvement (Pruitt Wandry & Hollums, 1998). Effective communication among the IEP team members is essential in providing best possible programs for students receiving special education services (Lytle & Bordin, 2001). …

Co-Teaching: How to Make This Marriage Work in Front of the Kids.

Abstract: The demands placed on school districts have galvanized the development of a relatively new educational kid on the block--co-teaching. As a result of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the even more recent mandates of the newly revised Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004, which defines "highly qualified" in new ways, it has become increasingly important for schools to utilize their resources using more effective and creative means. Time has taught us that students pulled from general education classes and taught in a resource setting do not benefit from the instruction of content area teachers. We also know that all general education teachers do not possess the expertise to meet the learning differences posed by students with disabilities. Co-teaching has become one of many collaborative strategies that schools are looking at in an effort to meet the needs of all students within this educational framework that we call school (Villa, Thousand, & Niven, 2004; Snell & Janney, 2005). As a result of these mandates, there has been a mad scramble to place two teachers in the same room at the same time and call it co-teaching. Despite the fact that specific models exist and that there are a multitude of how-to books and articles on the subject, co-teaching is regarded as a way to address the letter of the law rather than as a really fun, exciting, and valuable teaching technique to be used in conjunction with other inclusive strategies for the purpose of meeting the needs of all students in an inclusive school community. Co-teaching teams have been forced into the general education classroom where veteran teachers feel insulted to have a special education teacher placed in the room with the expectation that they both teach content area critical concepts. Special education teachers are frustrated because they have been left homeless, having their room taken from them, and have been thrust into a classroom that has been resided in by a veteran language arts, math, history, or science teacher who knows what to teach and how to teach it. The outcome of this dubious union is often a marriage that crumbles in front of the kids because the time and care needed to nurture and sustain it has not been provided. Research Findings Research findings have yielded mixed results on the effects of co-teaching. Some studies have indicated that students with disabilities showed larger gains in math and equal gains in reading when compared to students receiving pull out services (Bear & Proctor, 1990), and that consultation plus co-teaching was as effective as other service delivery models (Schulte, Osborne, & McKinney, 1990; Marston, 1996). Boudah and colleagues (1997) found that performance of students with high-incidence disabilities worsened during co-teaching. Other studies have indicated that for high-risk students (Dieker, 1998) and students with learning disabilities (Rice & Zigmond, 1999; Welch, 2000), co-teaching is an effective practice. Even with these mixed results, 77% of middle schools are using some form of co-teaching. Teacher Survey The author conducted a study of the attitudes and concerns of secondary teachers from 15 urban and suburban districts in and around Seattle, Washington. Using a structured interview format, general and special education teachers were asked to reply to a series of open and closed ended questions. Participation was anonymous and interviews were conducted on a 1 to 1 basis. Teachers were asked to share their opinions as well as factual information about the effects of co-teaching. Anonymity protected the views of supporters as well as complainers. The majority of the teachers surveyed did not participate voluntarily and most had no prior planning before engaging in the co-teaching process. Co-teaching proponents would argue that both of these features are necessary for a successful experience. Seventy-seven percent of the teachers surveyed said that co-teaching influenced student achievement. …

Addressing Diversity in Teacher Education Programs.

Abstract: Introduction The United States is a nation built from the richness of many cultures, languages, traditions and beliefs. This unique mixture has encouraged circumstances where awareness, tolerance and appreciation are fitting, as well as necessary for the purposes of strengthening and unifying the nation. Ultimately, the favorable outcome is an increased awareness stimulating a natural situation of diversity, which affects the masses. It becomes apparent that diversity is present in every aspect of our lives, and in no place is it more evident that in our classrooms where fundamental learning-primarily, but not exclusively-takes place. Schools across the United States are a reflection of its vibrant, multifaceted society. As a result, the student population continues to become more and more diverse. Banks & Banks (2004) indicate that even though our nation's student population is more diverse, the majority of teachers continue to be white (87%), females (74%) and middle-class. Teachers are faced with the challenge of teaching all students, regardless of their differences. It is the teacher's responsibility-as a learned educator-to reach every student while providing students with appropriate, relevant and meaningful instruction. Therefore, it is the obligation of teacher education programs to prepare preservice teachers to be competent as they face the challenges of today's diverse classroom settings. Interestingly, many preservice teachers enter teacher education programs with very limited-if any-first hand experiences with diversity. It is through their teacher education programs that preservice teachers have an opportunity to develop a greater understanding of diversity, as well as to share in various learning experiences that foster the awareness of diversity and diversity issues. This reality raises the following significant concerns about the integrity of teacher education (TED) programs: * Are teacher education programs effectively preparing preservice teachers to be competent in meeting the challenges that diverse classrooms represent? * Do preservice teachers feel prepared to meet the needs of their diverse student populations? In order to focus on these concerns, the issue of diversity in teacher education programs must be carefully examined to better determine how diversity is being addressed. It is imperative that teacher education programs provide preservice teachers with the knowledge, skills and related learning experiences required to succeed in facilitating learning that will take place in diverse classroom settings. Defining Culture and Diversity Erickson (2005) has stated that attempts of formal definitions of culture have not been fruitful and that "even experts have not been able to agree on what culture really is" (p. 34). According to Cushner, McClelland & Safford (2003), one of the greatest difficulties people have when exploring concepts related to culture and culture learning is in agreeing on what it is they are talking about. They further indicate that one could come across hundreds of definitions for culture, but the common thread that ties each of the various definitions together is the idea that culture references a human-made part of the environment, as opposed to aspects that occur in nature. Cushner, McClelland & Safford (2003) have identified 12 sources of cultural identity (race, ethnicity/nationality, social class, sex/gender, health, age, geographic region, sexuality, religion, social status, language, and ability/disability) that influence teaching and learning, and are universal and present in every culture. Cultural knowledge is filtered or transmitted to the individual through different socializing agents such as family, school, church, community, etc. (Cushner, McClelland & Safford, 2003). These 12 sources of cultural identity are responsible for the numerous ways in which individuals are unique and diverse. …

Prospective Teachers' Perspectives on Microteaching Lesson Study.

Abstract: How do we educate prospective teachers to teach in ways aligned with recent educational research and reforms? How do we help them engage in teaching as reflective practitioners and focus on teaching as a means for continued professional growth? Recent literature calls for the development and investigation of pedagogical approaches and experiences appropriate for enhancing learning in teacher education coursework (Grossman, 2005; Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000) According to the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future [NCTAF] (1996), it is important to implement methods of teaching prospective teachers that inspire, motivate, and help them develop ways of teaching that makes learning come alive for their students If prospective teachers are expected to awaken their students' curiosity and challenge their thinking through hands-on and minds-on experiences, then we believe it is important to engage these future teachers in experiences that arouse their interest and challenge their thinking about teaching and learning Prospective teachers complain that methods courses lack intellectual substance and do not sufficiently connect theory to practice (Bransford et al, 2000) Thus, we, as teacher educators, seek pedagogical approaches and experiences that speak to these complaints Microteaching Lesson Study Microteaching lesson study [MLS] is a cooperative learning experience intended to challenge prospective teachers' thinking about teaching and learning, and encourage their connection between theory and practice MLS was developed to provide prospective teachers enrolled in an introductory methods-of-teaching course with hands-on teaching experiences that engage them in cycles of planning, teaching, reflecting on, and revising lessons (Fernandez, 2005) MLS combines selected aspects of microteaching, a common practice in teacher education that originated in the United States in the 1960s (Grossman, 2005; Cruickshank & Metcalf, 1990), and lesson study, a professional development practice that is highly valued among Japanese teachers (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999; Fernandez & Chokshi, 2002) By combining these two practices, we intended to bring the merits of each to the education of our prospective teachers MLS, as designed and implemented at our university in the southeastern region of the United States, was a cooperative learning experience that incorporated the collaborative, continuous improvement aspect of lesson study (Fernandez, 2005; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999) and the simplified environment of microteaching Microteaching is often focused on practicing a particular teaching skill (eg, presenting clear instructions, asking probing questions, using wait-time appropriately, etc) and usually involves teaching simplified in three ways: class size, lesson length and task complexity (Cruickshank & Metcalf, 1990; Benton-Kupper, 2000; Grossman, 2005) MLS involved small groups of prospective teachers (typically three per group) cooperating on the planning, teaching, and revising of group MLS lessons Similar to microteaching contexts, the prospective teachers taught their MLS lesson (approximately 30 minutes) to small groups of their peers (5 to 7 students) Unlike microteaching, the complexity of the content task was not simplified and the main focus was not on demonstrating a particular teaching skill The content, however, was selected so that it was unfamiliar to their student-peers and could be taught within 30 minutes As with lesson study, the focus of the MLS experience was on developing lessons to meet a particular student learning goal (in our case, promoting student reasoning, analyzing, and generalizing in constructing mathematical concepts and relationships) Following the structure of lesson study, the MLS groups worked cooperatively through the four phases of lesson study: collaborative planning of a 'research lesson,' lesson observation by colleagues and other experts, analytic reflection, and ongoing revision (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999; Fernandez & Chokshi, 2002; Curcio, 2002) …

Influences of Experiences and Training on Effective Teaching Practices to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners in Schools

Abstract: Introduction This paper discusses one component of an ongoing project to explore differentiated instruction (DI) as an approach for meeting the academic and related needs of the wide array of diverse learners in schools. The project, The 3 Dimensions (3D) of Diversity for Inclusion, was conceived at the September 2001 faculty meeting of the Department of Teaching and Learning at Southeastern Louisiana University. During the meeting, a report on the results from the prior academic year's annual student teacher exit survey was presented. The lowest ranked item on the exit survey indicated that teacher candidates need more intensive preparation to be able to work more effectively with diverse learners in schools. Subsequently, a small group of elementary and special education faculty met to discuss the survey finding. Hence, a task force was formed to determine actions for enhancing teacher candidates' preparation to recognize the academic, behavioral, cultural (3 dimensions/3D), and other dimensions for effectively teaching all learners in inclusive classes. (1) Comprising the task force are university faculty representing elementary and special education, as well as two elementary school teachers who use differentiated instruction in their classes. Collectively and independently, the task force: a) reviewed research literature, educational materials, policy documents, and student teaching exit surveys; b) compiled a list of resources; and c) conducted pilot surveys of teacher educators and candidates. Before embarking on the pilot study, the task force set parameters to limit the scope of the research and identified questions on differentiated instruction and related items (e.g., forms of diversity, inclusion, accommodations and modifications). In 2003, The Louisiana Board of Regents awarded the task force a grant to conduct a pilot project to support training and research, a component of which is presented here. This study provides insight into teachers' instructional practices, their attitudes toward these practices, and their preparation to use differentiated instruction. If students are to achieve the high standards set by school districts and states in response to accountability, universities and school districts must explore teachers' current practices and determine which variables affect those practices to provide high quality initial teacher preparation and professional development for practicing teachers. The findings of this project draw a parallel to the redesigned undergraduate and graduate programs that include additional increased attention to diversity in two new courses and other courses that meet state and national standards and reforms (e.g., NCATE (2) Standard III-Diversity, INTASC (3), No Child Left Behind). Literature Review Studies have shown that teachers tend to teach the way they were taught. About twenty years ago, Cuban (1983) noted that a set of core teaching practices has endured over the past century. These practices (teaching the whole group, reliance upon a textbook, rows of desks, question-answer framework for carrying on dialogue, etc.) persisted over time, in different settings, in spite of changes in teacher education and the knowledge that students bring to school and major social and cultural movements. (4) Around the same time, Shubert (1986) wrote about the difficulty of transforming teacher practice. According to Shubert, change in K-12 classrooms is questionable when innovative teaching methods are not modeled in teacher education programs. He described methods courses of the 1980s and before as involving: drab lists of strategies to be memorized apart from any teaching-learning context and are interspersed with requirements to write units and lesson plans according to some rigidly specified format. If this is not enough, the student spends too many hours listening to outdated lectures delivered by someone who has little touch with the real world of school for many years. …

Math Anxiety in Pre-Service Elementary School Teachers.

Abstract: Does the thought of math cause you to feel helpless, panicky, and to have difficulty in breathing, or ability to concentrate? If so, you are not alone According to Trujillo (1999), Cemen, 1987; Posamentier & Stepelman, (1990, p 210) report that "feelings of math anxiety can lead to panic, tension, helplessness, fear, distress, shame, inability to cope, sweaty palms, nervous stomach, difficulty breathing, and loss of ability to concentrate" Math anxiety is an extremely common phenomenon among college and university students today Stephen G Krantz (1999, p 1) as reported in (Perry, 2004) describes an extreme form of this syndrome: "Math anxiety is an inability by an otherwise intelligent person to cope with quantification, and more generally, mathematics When confronted with a math problem, the sufferer has sweaty palms, is nauseous, has heart palpitations, and experiences paralysis of thought" Background Mathematics anxiety has been the topic of more research than any other in the affective domain According to Tooke (1998), although math anxiety may have serious consequences in both daily life and in work, mathematics anxiety has its roots in teaching and teachers (Williams, 1988), and has been tied to poor academic performance of students, as well as to the effectiveness of elementary teachers (Bush, 1989; Hembree, 1990) Mathematicians and mathematics educators have great concern that teachers' attitudes toward mathematics may affect more than their students' values and attitudes toward mathematics; these attitudes may affect the effectiveness of the teaching itself (Teague & Austin-Martin, 1981) As stated in Trujillo (1999), there is a particular concern in the case of elementary teachers, because it has been reported that a disproportionately large percentage experience significant levels of mathematics anxiety (Buhlman & Young, 1982; Levine, 1996) This leads to doubts as to their potential effectiveness in teaching mathematics to young children (Trice & Ogden, 1986) These concerns about the levels of mathematics anxiety among pre-service teachers and their potential effectiveness in teaching mathematics to young children were the bases for the research we conducted during the 2005-2006 school year at Arkansas State University This study was directed at determining the level of math anxiety among pre-service elementary school teachers on the main campus and two branch campuses Method Since students with math anxiety are difficult to identify in groups, we chose as our sample groups of students that we believed would exhibit math anxiety These groups included college students with non-science majors taking physical science labs (a general required course), early childhood teacher education majors, and middle school teacher education majors The education majors were further subdivided by whether or not they were interns (last semester seniors) Middle school teacher education majors were grouped by areas of concentration: language arts/social studies, or math/science In order to assess mathematics anxiety, we chose to administer the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale--Revised (MARS-R), a 24 item self-rating scale, developed by Plake and Parker in 1982, and based upon the original 98 item MARS rating scale (Richardson & Suinn, 1972) According to Hopko (2003, p339), The MARS-R measures anxiety in math-related situations with the composite score being a total of two subscales: LME and MEA Items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (no anxiety) to 4 (high anxiety) The MARS-R which has yielded a coefficient alpha reliability of 98, is correlated 97 with the full-scale MARS (Plake & Parker, 1982) After taking the 24 item MARS-R, students were asked to respond true or false to 12 math myths The math myths were taken from an article (Platonic Realms MiniTexts, 2004) …

Practitioner to Professor: An Examination of Second Career Academics' Entry into Academia.

Abstract: Background and Rationale There is ever increasing pressure for education faculty to bridge the research to practice gap and solve the challenges faced by today's schools (The National Research Council [NRC], 2005). Furthermore, the standards of accreditation entities such as the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education require that education faculty have "...exceptional expertise, have contemporary professional experiences in school settings at the levels that they supervise, and are meaningfully engaged in related scholarship" (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education [NCATE], 2002, p. 33). As expectations continue to expand and change, academic institutions are faced with the retirement of significant numbers of senior faculty (Austin, 2002b). The convergence of these phenomenon makes it critical to fill these positions with candidates who have both practical and scholarly knowledge and skills. This is particularly salient for those academic institutions that prepare practitioners to work in the field of education. A trend appears to be an increase in the number of experienced professionals who choose a second career in academia (Fogg, 2002; Thomsen & Gustafson, 1997). While experienced educational professionals may bring a wealth of practical knowledge and skills to their second careers in the academy, they may have limited knowledge about the inner workings, culture, and language of academia (Fogg, 2002). Similar to other early career faculty (i.e., pre-tenure), they face the challenge of balancing new roles, teaching, research, and service, as they work toward promotion and tenure. They must also learn about the structure and culture of their universities, financial matters, and program requirements. While a number of authors (Boice, 2000; Olsen, 1993; Sands, Parson, & Duane, 1991; Sorcinelli, 1994; Tierney, 1997) have emphasized the importance of supporting and mentoring early career faculty (whether previously professionals in the field or not), none have captured the experiences of veteran education professionals who chose a second career in higher education (i.e., second career academics). Reynolds (1992) has discussed the changes early career faculty undergo as they adjust to life in a university setting including the variation in roles and expectations depending on the faculty member's gender and acculturation to academia. Sharing knowledge of expectations and roles is an important part in assisting new faculty to successfully assume their teaching, research, and service responsibilities (Austin, 2002a). Several researchers have examined early career faculty members' understanding of how their university operates as an organization. Tierney (1997) found "grand markers that conveyed institutional meaning were absent, as were explicit, consistent messages on a more intimate level about what really mattered" (p. 13). The absence of these markers and explicit messages can present a somewhat confusing and puzzling situation for early career faculty members as they try to meet expectations set by their programs or departments and the university as a whole. Not surprisingly, early career faculty often report stress during their first years working in a university setting (Olsen, 1993). Moreover, to effectively provide education and training to pre-service students and professional development to practicing professionals, early career faculty must learn about the university context, specific department or program needs, research priorities, fiscal concerns, and instructional resources (Rosser, 2005; Tierney, 1997). In addition to keeping abreast of developments in their field, early career faculty must demonstrate knowledge and skills in four critical areas: (a) teaching (e.g., preparing courses, evaluating students, supporting non-traditional students, and mentoring graduate students), (b) research and graduate training (e. …

Retention Issues: A Study of Alabama Special Education Teachers

Abstract: It is projected that in the year 2010, there will be a need for 611,550 special education teachers in the US Yet, every year about 132% of special education teachers leave their positions Six percent leave the field altogether while 72% of the special education teachers transfer to general education positions Within the first 3 years of teaching, 29% of beginning teachers are projected to leave the profession; by the end of the 5th year, 39% leave the teaching field (see Billingsley, 2004, for a review) The purpose of the current study is to investigate issues that relate to the attrition, migration, and turnover of special education teachers in a county in southeast Alabama Causes of Attrition and Migration Special education teachers are more vulnerable to stress or professional burnout than human service professionals (Nichols & Sonsnowsky, 2002); this has contributed to feelings of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and has threatened the special education teachers' sense of personal accomplishment They tend to exhibit many of the same symptoms that are experienced by other human service professions such as nurses, physicians, and police officers who are deeply involved with people who have physical, social, and emotional problems (Zabel & Zabel, 2001) Embich's (2001) contends that the four major problems associated with burnout are beyond the control of the special education teacher: role conflict, role ambiguity, perceived workload, and perceived principal support Role conflict contributes to exhaustion by placing inconsistent, incompatible, or inappropriate demands on the instructor Role ambiguity contributes to the majority of burnout Moreover, special education teachers' responsibilities, rights, status and goals are often unclear (Piotrowski & Plash, 2006) Thus, the perceived workload of the special education teacher contributes to feelings of emotional exhaustion This workload includes paperwork, attending parent conferences, planning, and participating in extracurricular activities Furthermore, lack of administrative support contributes to elevated levels of emotional exhaustion and reduces the teachers' sense of accomplishment Miller, Brownell, and Smith (1999) conducted a study on the attrition of special education teachers and concluded that teachers leave the field primarily for four main reasons: (a) they do not possess the necessary certification; (b) they transfer to another school or district; (c) they dislike the school climate; and (d) they experience high levels of stress Methodology This study was conducted in Baldwin County in southeast Alabama All participants were teachers in the county school system and serve special education students in their areas of expertise A 63-item instrument was selected that would reflect specific issues relating to the retention and attrition of special education teachers Dr Berna Levine developed this measure in Cobb County, Georgia, for the purpose of determining why special education teachers leave the field of special education The questionnaire assessed issues regarding job satisfaction, administration responsiveness, pre-employment preparation, and specific reasons for terminating employment (Levine, 2001) In the year 2002, Dr Ed Richardson, Alabama State Superintendent of Education, used guidelines set forth by NCLBA to develop a model for identifying highly-qualified teachers in Alabama (Alabama Department of Education, 2003) Highly-qualified teachers are defined as those teachers who hold full-state certification, possess solid content knowledge of specific instructional areas and have received a bachelor's degree from a 4-year college or university (US Department of Education, 2002, 2003) Highly-qualified teachers must teach core academic subjects such as English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign language, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography …

Improving Group Work: Voices of Students.

Abstract: Introduction For those who use group projects, the teaching strategy is particularly appealing because of its versatility. Group projects can be organized as short-term or long-term projects. Short-term group projects might have students work together for a class period or part of a class period in an effort to learn more about a particular topic. Long-term projects could be spread out over several class periods, or the entire semester. Regardless of how long the projects are designed to last, research shows a number of benefits of group work. Among others, those benefits that have been identified in the literature include the following: (1) students learn teamwork skills, (2) students improve their critical thinking skills, and (3) students gain more insight about a particular topic. As far as teamwork skills go, surveys of employers show that employers want college graduates to have developed teamwork skills (Blowers 2000). Advocates of group projects suggest that the pedagogical strategy affords students a firsthand experience to gain teamwork skills (Colbeck et al. 2000: Davis and Miller 1996: Young and Henquinet 2000). In this regard, it is believed that group projects "can effectively serve as a bridge between the academic community and the business world" (Lordan 1996: 43). Ideally, working with their peers, students will learn decision making skills and how to communicate with one another (Dudley, Davis, and McGrady 2001). In addition, the symbolic interactionist in many of us would likely not be surprised by research that shows that group work helps students develop social skills (Andrusyk and Andrusyk 2003). By working with others, students are able to assign meaning to the actions of their peers as well as their own actions. They also receive feedback--formal, informal, or both--from their peers. The feedback combined with their own interpretations of group work should foster growth in terms of students' social abilities. Under the right circum stances, the well designed and implemented group work should also help students develop their critical thinking skills (Colbeck et al. 2000; Dudley et al. 2001). While we are not aware of any studies that have examined how group projects foster the development of critical thinking skills, general findings about group work from past research tacitly suggest that the strategy could be successful in this regard. For instance, some research suggests that group projects help students to address ethical and societal considerations that arise when students work together (Roberts-Kirchoff and Caspers 2001). If the student group is diverse, students will learn about one another's backgrounds, values, and beliefs. Indeed, others have also suggested that group projects can help students learn about multicultural issues they would otherwise not learn about (Doyle, Beatty, and Shaw 1997). Researchers also suggest that students may learn more about whatever topic is being considered if they work in groups. For example, Adams and Slater (2002) suggest that group work supplementing lectures helps make courses more interesting to students, and subsequently helps students learn more. Most instructors have stood in front of a class only to wonder if their only purpose on that day was to serve as a sedative for the majority of the class. Group work advocates argue that most any topic can be made interesting by actively involving students in the topic through some form of collaborative learning, of which group work is just one strategy. While a number of strengths for this form of teaching strategy have been noted in the literature, potential drawbacks have limited its use. In this study, we consider how students believe group projects should be changed in order improve their pedagogical success. METHODS Surveys were distributed to 145 students who had just recently completed a group project. The group project was a semester long group research project that students completed. …

Cultural Discontinuity between Home and School Language Socialization Patterns: Implications for Teachers.

Abstract: What is Language Socialization? Language is a means by which we communicate, but it is more than just a means of communication. It conveys a wealth of information other than the primary content of the message. By this we mean that language serves multiple functions. We use it to exchange, share, report, and define experiences. It structures meaning, determines how we see things, is the carrier of our culture, and affects our worldviews (Sue & Sue, 2003). Children are socialized to develop skills necessary to become competent members within their cultural and linguistic communities. Through language socialization, verbal and nonverbal communication patterns convey the values, beliefs, and models of interaction within a particular community. This interaction of language and culture serves to socialize the child not only to the use of language but also to the cultural group with which he identifies (Hamers, 2004). Thus, all children come to school socialized to language in culture-specific ways. Theoretical Framework While theories of socialization vary to some degree, the common thread between disciplines is that language and culture play critical roles in the organization of socializing contexts (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986). Interactionist, phenomenological, and sociocultural views of language socialization originate with the model developed by Hymes (1967). In the absence of a body of systematic knowledge and theory, Hymes proposed a model for investigating the interaction of language and social environment. He suggested that an adequate study of language recognizes that communities differ in patterns and roles assigned to language with regard to beliefs, values, and reference groups and that these variables affect language use and acquisition by children. Literature from a number of researchers building on Hymes' model suggests that the learning of the appropriate use of language is related to the impact of culture on early experiences (Heath, 1982; Crago, 1992; Marshall, 1995). The prominent theme is that language socialization is an interactive process grounded in subjective experiences. It is the process by which children learn the verbal and nonverbal communication patterns within their particular community. Within this paradigm every interaction is viewed as a potentially socializing experience in which children gradually learn the rules and customs of their language community (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986). In this regard, children learn the power dynamics, norms, and rituals of communication of their home culture which may not be congruent with that of the mainstream school culture. Cultural Discontinuity of Language Patterns in the Home and School The language socialization patterns of children from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) groups often differ from that which they encounter upon entry into the mainstream school environment. The differences can exist in the form of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure, and use of cultural specific language forms in social interaction (Wolfram, Adger, Christian, 1999). Indeed, research has shown that differences in the functional use of language at home and at school can interfere with academic achievement among African American, Latino Americans, Native Americans, immigrants, and the poor (Heath, 1982; Foster, 1992; Gay, 2000; Harris, Kamhi, & Pollock, 2001). To illustrate, Champion and colleagues (2003) found that on a standardized assessment of vocabulary given to African American children, young adults in the community had strong alternative responses for 75 of the items missed by several children. The authors posited that these test items evoked the strong alternative responses from children who had not yet acquired the standard meanings of the words necessary to receive credit on the assessment, though they were correct in the home culture. These findings highlight the discontinuity that can occur between home language use and teacher expectations of language in school. …

ePortfolios: Using Technology to Enhance and Assess Student Learning

Abstract: A paradigm shift in the past decade has changed the focus in education from a teacher-centered instructional environment to a student-centered one (Brooks, 1997; Terheggen, Prabhu, & Lubinescu, 2000) As a result, universities are held responsible for and expected to provide evidence of the process and growth in student learning over time Grades are no longer proof enough of learning; multiple stakeholders in education want documentation that demonstrates the entire process of learning (Heaney, 1990; Terheggen, Prabhu, & Lubinescu, 2000; Villano, 2005) Ruhland and Brewer (2001) call attention to the increased demands for accountability that emphasize assessment of student learning To answer these calls for change, universities have begun to focus on student learning outcomes as a way to measure what students have learned and are able to do when they complete their degree Outcomes assessments "include the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that determine what students know now that they didn't know before their college experience" (p 142) Learning outcomes may be evaluated through various measures depending on the academic program, the philosophical beliefs of assessment practices on the part of the faculty, college and/or department, and measures whether students have reached the learning expectations Due to the assessment emphasis alternative processes to the traditional test are being developed as a means to meet accreditation and accountability expectations (Ruhland & Brewer, 2001) Multiple researchers concur that the best learning, which is retained, occurs in the context of an active learning experience For example, learning is best facilitated in environments that provide for hands-on, experiential opportunities, accentuate student participation and interaction with peers, and encourage student-teacher communication (Astin, 1985, 1996; Tinto, 1987; Davis & Murrell, 1994; Kuh, 1996) Astin (1985, 1996) provides a foundational framework that states students learn as a result of their involvement level and demonstrated ownership Astin states that quality educational programs have a learning environment that includes students actively engaged, high expectations, and continuous assessment and feedback (Astin as cited in Skawinski & Thibodeau, 2002) A regional university in North East Texas, in partnership with a local independent school district, used Astin's framework as a guide when planning a new and unique cohort master's degree program in Secondary Education The goal was to provide the best system for documenting student learning outcomes and ways to assess the overall program quality It was important to be able to use an outcomes assessment process that would actively engage students where they would be responsible, reflective learners and provide assessment information for feedback to guide the student learning process and inform program goals, objectives and field-based learning experiences for quality enhancement Current investigations emphasize the value of "student effort and involvement as decisive elements in promoting positive college outcomes" (Davis & Murrell, 1994, p 2) Since research shows that ePortfolios can "enhance teaching, learning and assessment practices", this method of assessment was selected as a way to document and highlight the process of student learning and to measure student learning outcomes during their master's degree program of study (Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005, p 3) The EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative definition of electronic portfolios was used in order to have a collective way of thinking (University of British as cited in Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005) This definition describes ePortfolios as "personalized, Web-based collections of work, responses to work, and reflections that are used to demonstrate key skills and accomplishments for a variety of contexts and time periods" (p …

An Assessment of Teachers' Attitude towards Teaching Profession in Midwestern Nigeria.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Recent events in Nigeria show that the traditional respect and prestige enjoyed by teachers in the society have been eroded quite considerably (Awanbor, 1996) and indeed, loss of interest and attraction to the teaching profession. Consequently, this sordid situation occasioned by low enrolment of teachers in preparation institutions has become a source of worry to teacher trainers. Awanbor (1996) reported that some teacher-trainees in the college of Education did not appear to be particularly enthused by the training goal of teaching as they indicated that the teaching profession was really not an attractive profession to them. Recently, it was revealed that of the more than 700,000 candidates processed by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) for admission into the various universities courses, only about 10,000 (0.0147%) applied to education, yet we need teachers to teach the far more than 20 million children in the Nigerian school system (Awanbor, 1999). According to Nwaokolo (1993) the cause of this problem is traceable to the low status accorded the Nigerian teacher by the Nigerian public. In a study by Taiwo (1980), he observed that the teaching profession had gone down on the scale of respectability and that was causing a number of teachers to drift into more respectable forms of employment. In another development., Omoregie in 1994 reports that the attrition rate of teachers, particularly secondary school teachers is attributable to the general poor attitude to the teaching profession. Similarly, Ojo (1971) stated that the university graduates who form the bulk of the teaching staff in the post-primary institutions were leaving the profession at an alarming rate. Nwangwu (1997) observed that the crisis in Nigerian education system is traceable to lack of interest and low morale due to poor social status. Equally more problematic, according to Nwaokolo (1998 & 1999) was the tact that teachers themselves were experiencing low morale and poor self-esteem. Afe (1998) opines that the standing of the teaching profession is affected by the social background, adding that the low status constitutes a problem in recruiting competent hands into the profession. Therefore, one of the challenges facing the profession and teaching after 2000 AD is to raise the status of the profession. The teacher, as noted by Awanbor (1998) has become a shadow of himself having lost out in professional competence and social regards. The difficulty in recruiting and training teachers has been traced to the low status accorded the Nigerian teachers and apparent loss of interest and attraction of the profession. Nwaokolo (1993) broadly categorized the factors responsibly for the low status to include poor conditions of services, teachers' negative personal and professional behaviors, teaching occupation's semi-professional status, and wider society negative influence. Therefore, the present study sought to obtain empirical evidence on the status of teachers and the teaching profession in Nigeria and propose way to enhance the image of the Nigerian teacher and the profession. Methodology The study employed a simple survey method to gather data on teachers' attitude towards teaching profession. The target group for this study comprised 400 post primary school teachers randomly drawn from 40 post primary schools in Midwestern Nigeria. From each post primary school, 10 teachers were selected through simple random sampling procedure. Thus a total of 400 post primary school teachers constituted the research sample for the study. Instrument The major instrument for data collection was the Teacher's Attitude Questionnaire (TAQ) developed by the researchers. The instrument sought teacher's general attitude towards teaching and rating of factors responsible for teacher's low status. Data/responses collected were analyzed using mean response and rank order. …

The Influence of Four Elementary Principals upon Their Schools' Reading Programs and Students' Reading Scores

Abstract: Introduction The role of the principal is dynamic and changing. In fact, changes in the work environment of education have caused both role ambiguity and role overload for school principals. As educational communities demand more data-driven accountability measures, the role of the principal as one who can both articulate and implement the vision of an effective instructional environment for all students and teachers becomes an important factor in student success (Marsh, 1997). Not only must school principals become knowledgeable instructional leaders, but they should also exhibit the characteristics of strong leadership. Such factors include cultivating a community of learners, giving voice to all stakeholders, envisioning key values, and demonstrating personal demeanors to enable all of these somewhat incongruous elements to 'come together' to form an outstanding school (Nadeau & Leighton, 1996). The National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) published NAESP Standards for What Principals Should Know and Be Able to Do in 2001. Included in the standards are indicators of what the NAESP believes makes a quality school, and there are six standards relative to what a principal must know and be able to do if he/she is to provide leadership that enables his/her school to meet those indicators. The purpose of this research project was to: (1) develop composites of four principals' influences upon their schools' reading programs; (2) to discuss those composites within the context of the National Association of Elementary School Principals' 2001 standards; (3) to link the principal composites to standardized reading test scores; and (4) to begin to explore the development of a model of principal influence upon student reading achievement. Review of the literature The idea that the principal yields immense influence within an elementary school is well substantiated (Blase and Blase, 1999; Bogler, 2001; Checkley, 2000; Harcher and Hyle, 1996; Sergiovanni, 1996). Blase and Blase (1999) present findings that suggest that principals who are viewed as effective instructional leaders within their schools use a broad-based approach for teachers' growth and reflection. The principals themselves "embrace the challenges of growing and changing" (p. 370), conceive of teachers not as technicians but as intellectuals, and, above all else, talk freely and openly with teachers about instruction. In a study by Bogler (2001), teachers reported higher job satisfaction when they were given opportunities for self-development and participation in the decision-making procedures for the school. It was from these aspects that teachers experienced a higher sense of self-esteem and empowerment, which was associated with an increased sense of job satisfaction. In this study, the principal's leadership style was associated with the teachers' satisfaction. Harcher and Hyle (1996) discovered that effective elementary instructional leaders engaged in various strategies designed to balance power inequities in their school community. They exemplified the use of collaborative power based on trust, respect, and collegiality. Principals who demonstrate effective instructional leadership and help at-risk students are able to meet students' and teachers' basic/instructional, academic/professional, and affective needs. In schools where at-risk students are achieving success, principals: (1) support teachers' instructional methods; (2) allocate resources and materials; (3) make frequent visits to classrooms for instructional purposes; (4) solicit and provide feedback on instructional methods and techniques; and (5) use data to focus attention on improving the curriculum or instructional approach (Mendez-Morse, 1991). Heck (1999) describes how achievement outcomes can be predicted based on teachers' and principals' perceptions of instructional leadership. Griffith (1999) posits the idea that there are school structural characteristics and student population characteristics that affect the effectiveness of principals. …

Public Law 107-110 No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Support or Threat to Education as a Fundamental Right?.

Abstract: "We the people, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice and secure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare and ensure the blessings of liberty for ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this constitution of the United States of America" (Preamble to the Constitution of the United States of America). In crafting this statement, the leadership of the United States of America responds to some fundamental values and beliefs that are inherent in the lore of America and the hearts of its populous: There should be justice for all and that justice is operationalized by a society crafted to facilitate equal opportunity for its citizenry; through equal opportunity, every upstanding citizen would and should have, to the greatest degree possible, the opportunity to attain life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (Woodson, 1998). Sustenance of life might include access to adequate medical care, healthy diet, safe neighborhoods and a good education, for it is only with sound mind and body that an individual is able to have the liberty to access, cultivate and realize the full extent of his or her potential. The process of achieving this realization is the key to the pursuit of happiness. These values are imbedded implicitly in American manifestos and in the great myths of America. In establishing its public school system, America's forefathers sought to ensure liberty to pursue happiness by helping its immigrant populous to acquire key skills (Perkinson, 1977). Access to English language, the ability to read and write and accurately compute arithmetic were key skills needed to climb the social and economic ladder. These American values, deeply held and often elegantly stated are democratic and aimed at fostering the well being of its entire citizenry, yet in process, the United States citizenry and their government are not always congruent with declared values. The Politics of Education One of the greatest threats to the realization of the American myth is the politicization of the educative process. Ideally, each citizen would have the opportunity to be taught by a well trained educator, and teachers would be equipped with an ability and liberty to apply the fruits of their teaching experience to their process as they tailor the delivery of curricula to the idiosyncratic needs of their students. A benchmark of success might be identified and adequate resources supplied to achieve educational goals. The curriculum would be shaped to allow each student the opportunity to identify personal goals and achieve them, without unwitting generation of obstacles to future success. History, Technology, Health Science, Sociology, Literature and the Arts, would be central to the cultivation of a competent citizenry, rather than neglected stepchildren in the educational process. How can a citizen avoid repeating the mistakes, some quite costly, of their forefathers if there is no knowledge of what said mistakes were? How can a citizen apply higher order critical thinking ability to their process if it has not been cultivated? In process, such a citizen might make rash decisions in crisis that ultimately result in enhanced chaos around the world. Such a citizenry might be driven by fear rather than fact as they seek leadership, or avoid it.... In response to enhanced awareness and valuing of the rights of racial and ethnic minorities to have an adequate education, the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Title VI) was passed (Crawford, 2000). Four years later, the 1968 Bilingual and Education Act (BEA) was passed as the Title VII Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). With the passage of BEA came grant funding designated to assist the poor and those with limited English proficiency. It is with the 1968 BEA that a fundamental change is reflected in the language utilized to craft the act (Kloss, 1998). In its previous form (Title VI) students served were to be identified by the language spoken at home with the family. …

An Investigation of an after School Math Tutoring Program: University Tutors + Elementary Students = A Successful Partnership.

Abstract: "I never used to like math but now it is my favorite subject since I have been going to math tutoring. Now I understand it." "It is really cool" "I liked that it helped me to bring up my math grade and the best thing is that it was fun!" "I liked everything, especially my tutor and the snacks." These quotes are typical of elementary school students in an after-school math tutoring program, a school district and university partnership. Serving 3rd through 6th graders, the program is in its 9th year and enjoys support from parents, teachers, students, the school district, and university teacher educators. Research on math tutoring programs indicates three overlapping categories: tutoring programs, mentoring programs, and university and school partnerships (Bogan, 1997; Cavanaugh et al. 1997; Heron, Welsch, & Goddard 2003; Hock et al. 2001; Konish 1999; McCluskey et al. 2004; Meyer 1997). Whether gains in achievement are moderate or profound, the keys to success in achievement point to (a) preparation for the mentors, (b) a long-term commitment, and (c) specific program goals. Although many experiments are successful, others (Zuelke and Nelson, 2001; McCluskey et al., 2004) resulted in achievement losses, but only when (a) a relationship is short-term (from a lack of commitment on the part of the mentor or tutor) or (b) the management of the program is disorganized. The need for successful educational initiatives such as tutoring for lower-performing students has become increasingly important due to the demands of No Child Left Behind and its emphasis on improving standardized test scores. Teachers, administrators, and researchers are seeking ways to help struggling students increase mathematics achievement. The strategy described here provided prospective teachers with in-school tutoring of real students, a strategy consistent with a goal of integrating theory and practice (NCTM, 1991) through experience. As this program was in a small, rural community, the measures taken serve to illustrate the elements of a successful program. This experience may help stimulate thinking on how your school or district might implement a program that improves achievement and attitudes, but is adapted to your needs and situation. The After-School Tutoring Program Background. The school district and university are located in rural Pennsylvania. The school district includes four elementary schools, one junior high school, and one senior high school. Research informs us that a key to success is a long-term commitment to tutoring. In 1996, a growing recognition for the need to provide math support to elementary students resulted in the acquisition of a small grant to purchase mathematics games and manipulative materials to support after-school tutoring at one of the elementary schools. Tutors were recruited through the local university, teachers recommended students at-risk of failing mathematics, and the Instructional Support Teacher coordinated tutoring activities with two classroom-teacher volunteers. The initial program received a boost when the superintendent of schools realized the value of the program and expanded it to all four elementary buildings through a grant used to pay teachers and to purchase more materials. Currently, the Instructional Support Teacher functions as the overall Program Coordinator and the district provides funding for two teachers per elementary building. Elementary children in grades 3-6 are chosen to participate based on math scores below the 30th percentile on the standardized test used by the state of Pennsylvania, the results of the Stanford 9 Achievement Tests, and classroom teachers' recommendations. The ratio of elementary students to university tutors remains about two students to each tutor. The level of staffing and support from the district shows a long-term commitment to an organized program. Further, extra materials were important as a means to reinforce math skills and to provide a rich variety of activities. …

Efficacy of Alternative Teacher Certification Programs: A Study of the Florida Model

Abstract: Introduction Alternative certification (AC) programs give instructors a fast-track avenue to obtain certification while working in the classroom as a teacher. Candidates usually have bachelor's degrees or advanced degrees in other areas of specialization. Alternative certification programs vary widely in purpose, content, and structure from state to state, but the majority of the programs require training, licensure exams, coursework, and mentoring while the individual is working in the classroom (U.S. Department of Education, 2002, 2003). The major goals of AC programs are to increase the quantity and quality of teachers and to increase the number of male and minority teachers. Moreover, programs attract individuals who are committed to staying in the teaching profession. Morris (2002) conducted a study of different AC programs and found that the age and academic major of the individual have a major impact on teacher retention, with older individuals more likely to stay in teaching. Florida Alternative Certification Programs Florida faces a teacher shortage similar to states in the west and in the rest of the south. In fact, Florida will need more than 162,000 new teachers and paraprofessionals by the year 2010. It is estimated that the state will need 16,000 new teachers every year for the next 8 years as a result of the high teacher retirement rates, attrition in the field, and lack of interest in recent graduates of college teacher preparation programs. Bonuses are frequently offered to new teachers who agree to work in high-poverty districts at schools whose students have low grades on state tests. Florida has three ways for individuals to meet specialization requirements and two ways to meet the professional requirements to enter the teaching profession (Richard, 2003). Section 231.17(b) of the Florida Statutes authorizes every school district to develop its own AC program to allow individuals to obtain the professional preparation for certification without earning college degrees. Individuals must meet the state certification requirements in subject areas or have 30 hours of coursework in the field to participate in this program. The district plan must have approval by the Florida Department of Education. The participant must also pass all state certification examinations, demonstrate professional education competence, and satisfy credit requirements. Seven school systems have approved alternative certification programs; these include Hillsborough, Orange, Manatee, Broward, Escambia, Santa Rosa, and the Florida State University Research School. The Bureau of Educator Certification works with each district to obtain pass rates and data on all candidates (Florida State Report, 2002). The Florida Alternative Certification Program (2002) is based on 12 competencies referred to as the "Educator Accomplished Practices" that were adopted by the Florida State Board of Education in November of 1996. These include (a) assessment, (b) communication, (c) continuous improvement, (d) critical thinking, (e) diversity, (f) ethics, (g) human development and learning, (h) knowledge of subject matter, (i) learning environment, (j) planning, (k) role of the teacher, and (1) technology. This is part of Florida's A+ Plan for improvement and accountability in school throughout the state for student learning and teacher competency. The state provides a comprehensive set of tasks that includes products and performance practices. The 12 practices are assessed by a set of 2 to 5 tasks and observations. The Florida teacher may use computer programs, online classes, in-service workshops, or college courses to master the material. The teacher is provided a trained mentor and support in the school while teaching and working toward certification (Florida Alternative Certification Program, 2002). The primary purpose of the current study was to compare two teacher education preparation programs. …

The Rural Principal's Role with Consideration for Special Education.

Abstract: Schools continue to place learners with disabilities in the general education classroom and provide special education services in that environment (Sage and Burrello, 1994). This trend, developed from shifts in both general and special education, promotes the provision of an individualized education to all learners, including those with disabilities in the typical classroom environment. Integral in making this and other changes work is the school principal. Effective schools research revealed the importance of leadership at the local school level (Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand and Usdan, 1990). "Leadership is influence ... [and] the ability to obtain followers" (Maxwell, 1993, p, 1). Effectively achieving an integrated special education program within the general education environment involves the principal providing the necessary direction and vision (Gameros, 1995). In fact, principals are key in making special education succeed or fail (Parker and Day, 1997; Smith and Colon, 1998). In addition to the leadership role principals play, they are also accountable for the referral and delivery of special education services in the school building (Quigney, 1996). Recent legislation and litigation continue to place more responsibility on the principal. This and other site level responsibilities challenge the constantly increasing role of the school administrator (Servatius, Fellows, and Kelly, 1992; Williams and Katsiyannis, 1998). How can principals demonstrate leadership in this area? What do principals currently do? The results of this survey examine these responsibilities and the principal's role in special education leadership. Method The participants were principals of small rural schools of Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Each of the schools may be classified as rural in that "all schools in the district are located in counties with a population density of fewer than 10 persons per square mile" and was identified as rural by a governmental agency (Paige, 2004). Respondents completed a survey developed and sent by the investigators. The survey was a modification of the work of Billingsley, Farley, and Rude (1993). If participants failed to return the survey, the principals received a follow-up letter and survey. In addition to a number of demographic queries, the investigators asked respondents to pen their agreement or disagreement to indicators of special education leadership roles (Billingsley, Farley, and Rude, 1993). The survey adapted forty-two indicators to positive statements from which the respondents were requested to respond. These statements in the questionnaire are listed in Table 1. The principals responded to each questionnaire using a Likert-type scale. A response of "1" indicated strong agreement, "3" was neutral, and "5" indicated strong disagreement. Results The participants in this study were principals and other school officials who performed the duties of a principal in small rural schools of Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming. The results are based upon 255 (58%) questionnaires returned from an original mailing of 439. The numbers reported do not always equal 255 because not all of the participants answered each question. Regarding their primary administrative assignment, 98 (39%) were elementary school principals, 78 (31%) were secondary school principals, 19 (8%) were elementary/secondary school administrators, and 50 (20%) were central office and other administrative officials. Of the respondents, 5 (2%) had bachelor's degrees, 177 (70%) had master's degrees, 51 (20%) had specialist's degrees, and 12 (5%) had doctorates. The average age of the respondents was 47.4 years with a standard deviation of 8.6 years. They had as an average 22 years of experience with a standard deviation of 9.3 years. The respondents included 74 females (30%) and 172 males (70%). When asked, "What percentage of time is spent on regular education tasks and special education tasks? …

Teaching Diversity and Tolerance in the Classroom: A Thematic Storybook Approach

Abstract: Multicultural Globe and Literature Many Americans believe racial disparities are a major problem in the nation (Whyy, 2000). Since our society is made up with various cultures, religions, and ethnic groups, it is bound to be diverse and multicultural. As globalization has sped up by the fast growing technology, the understanding, tolerance, respect and appreciation of each other's culture become an imperative for us to live peacefully as global citizens. Everyone has a culture and cultures are learned, shared and adapted. Culture is a way of perceiving, believing, evaluating and behaving (Goodnough, 1987). Culture is so much part of us that we do not realize that not everyone shares our culture, its attributes, or its manifestations. Thus, learning about other cultures with their beliefs, values, behaviors, customs and traditions becomes one important step for us to take towards peace and harmony in the world. From the current terrorist activities, racial conflicts and gender differences to schoolyard bullies, most of them arise because of misunderstandings and intolerance of differences and diversities among people. Thus, our global community in general and educators in particular are faced with the task of preparing the youngsters to live in today's diverse global community with each other harmoniously, successfully and productively. Our classroom teachers, administrators of schools, professional development staff and teacher training institutions are faced with the overwhelming challenges of working with students from extremely diverse cultural backgrounds. In multicultural countries such as the Unites States, both students and faculty populations in schools are getting more and more diverse. Thus, it is even more important for us to understand, accept and appreciate each other in school settings as well as in society. To face and meet the challenge and demand of enhancing teachers' and students' awareness of diversity, we need to develop programs with multicultural components. Literature is the essence of communication. Through it, we share our opinions, values, experiences, and what makes us happy and sad. We share the most personal aspects of our culture and the ways in which we identify with a particular ethnicity, geographical region, religion, or other cultural groups. Thus, literature becomes a great resource for us to study our various cultures. The study of literature allows us to see that people of different cultures are more similar than different from each other. Also the Advisory Board (Whyy, 2000) for "The President's Initiative on Race" developed a list of actions to take that could increase the momentum toward making "One America." The first action suggested by the Advisory Board includes the use of literature, "Make a commitment to become informed about people from other races and cultures. Read a book, see a movie, watch a play, or attend a cultural event that will inform you and your family about the history and current lives of a group different than your own" (Whyy, 2000). Related Studies Perini (2002) stresses multicultural children's books have the potential to support diversity in the curriculum and raise consciousness on cultural issues that are ignored in schools (Harris, 1991; Reese, 1996; Tatum, 1997). Sharing children's books with students can provide opportunities to make explicit and call into question the traditional, prevailing beliefs and views people hold of themselves and of others. In 1998, Abound proposed, after conducting a study, that the attitudes of children towards diversity tend to remain the same unless they are somehow altered through life-changing events. Wham, Barnhart, and Cook (1996) reaffirmed Aboud's (1998) findings and in addition found that children in kindergarten, second and fourth grades, who were exposed to multicultural storybook reading in addition to school and home reading programs, seemed to develop the most positive attitudes towards differences. …

Identity Development of East Asian Female International Students with Implications for Second-Language Higher Education.

Abstract: Throughout the United States, there is a large population of international students studying at colleges and universities. According to the annual report of Open Doors 2004 issued by the Institute of International Education, during the 2003-2004 academic year, the number of foreign students enrolling in American colleges and universities was estimated to be 572,509. Most international students came from Asia. Asian students comprised over half (57%) of all international student enrollment. The leading six source countries for international students were India (79,736), China (61,765), South Korea (52,484), Japan (40,835), Canada (27,017), and Taiwan (26,178). Problem Statement Research on gender and international students' adjustment to host cultures has found that female students from a different culture may experience more difficulty in adjusting to other cultures than male students (e.g., Manese, Sedlacek, & Leong, 1984). Because Asians, of all international students, may have the most difficulty in adjusting to American culture (e.g., Pedersen, 1991; Zhang, 2000), Asian female students therefore may have the most difficulty in adjusting to American culture among all international students. Facing the triple disadvantages of being women, Asians, and international students in the United States, Asian female international students are held to Asian stereotypes, such as obedience, submissiveness, subservience (e. g. Hawkins, 1998; Lin & Yi, 1997), quietness (e.g., Hawkins), and non-assertiveness (e.g., Lin & Yi). Because social stereotypes are linked to self-concept (Clark, 1982) and can lead individuals to "inevitably [see] the world from the vantage point of that position and in terms of the particular images, metaphors, story lines and concepts which are made relevant within the particular discursive practice in which they are positioned" (Davies & Harre, 1990, p. 46), these stereotypes can negatively influence Asian women's self, social, and personal identities. Among Asian female international students, East Asian female international students may be more vulnerable in developing identities desirable to them. East Asia, including China, Mongolia, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, is heavily influenced by Chinese cultural traditions. Because these Chinese-influenced countries share Confucianism as a common cultural heritage, East Asian female international students commonly possess respect for social norms and embrace the Confucian philosophy of harmony and the expected Confucian passive and yielding female role (e.g., Oldstone-Moore, 2002). Therefore, in order to fulfill the expectations of American society and develop a non-confrontational relationship with members of the host society, East Asian female international students may experience more difficulty than international students from other regions in developing identities more desirable or acceptable to them. Definitions of the Key Terms In this study, I define the terms identity, second-language environment, the ideology of cultural homogeneity, agency of identity, American society, and American as follows: Identity: Identity consists of three levels: self-, social, and personal. Self-identity is the way individuals perceive themselves; social identity refers to the social positions that are generally acknowledged by society or the stereotypes that are possessed by the general public; and personal identity is the way individuals represent themselves to others. Second-language environment: The second-language environment is the environment in the United States where English is used as the first language. The ideology of cultural homogeneity: Despite the general perception that American culture is characterized more by diversity than by homogeneity, the American ideology of cultural homogeneity implies an American mindset that because the English language and Eurocentric culture are superior to others, people with different cultures and languages should conform to the dominant monocultural canon and norms. …

Gender Inequity in Science and Mathematics Education in Africa: The Causes, Consequences, and Solutions

Abstract: Introduction Science and technology have long been recognized as the cornerstone of development and prosperity of Africa. Economic prosperity of African countries is interlinked with its skillful utilization and management of science and technology. This underscores the importance of skilled human resources in the science, mathematics and technology fields in Africa. However, while the benefits of science and mathematics education for women in sustainable social and economic development are numerous in some major parts of the world, Africa still lags behind other continents in terms of provision of science and mathematics education for girls. Female education and training in Africa is generally characterized by lower performance and achievement levels than those of boys, especially in mathematics, science and other technical subjects (Gachukia & Kabira, 1991). A closer look at the factors reveals that the problem continues as it has not yet occupied a prominent place in Africa's educational circles. Several contributing factors are addressed in this paper and they include the early childhood environment, family expectations, societal image, gender stereotypes, and the school environment and gender issues in Africa. The paper further addresses the consequences of this disparity for Africa and finally offers some recommended solutions including accommodating various learning styles and perspectives, connecting science concepts to life experiences, promoting an environment of self-confidence and success, providing students with female role models, effective networking, advocating gender-fair materials, gender-based affirmative action, conducting workshops and in-service training for science teachers and finally advocating for effective official government polices and involvement. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER ISSUES Of late one of the most active debates in academia has been on nature versus nurture controversy and this dispute is so controversial the opposing sides almost never discuss them. It is in view of these different schools of thought that one finds Harvard's President Lawrence Summers' recent statement that women might be intrinsically disadvantaged in studying science and mathematics (Reid, 2003; Fogg, 2005a; Fogg, 2005b), which has generated strong public debate very fascinating. One school of thought about the differences between men's and women's brains believes Summers' remarks have merit because due to physical development of their brains, males have better developed visual spatial ability than girls (see Child & Smithers, 1971); thus, women suffer from a genetic deficit, and that biological differences between men and women really can account for some of the under-representation of women in some fields of science (See Gray, 1981). According to this philosophical framework, 'women lack the basic intellectual equipment' to profit from science education. Thus, they attribute gender inequity in academic performance in science and mathematics to genetics (Benbow & Stanley, 1980; Gray, 1981), and not surprisingly, individuals who subscribe to this position are reluctant to commit resources to serve the needs of women. However, another school of thought advocates that there is substantial research that provides clear and compelling evidence that women, like men, flourish in science when they are given the opportunity and a supportive environment. This scholarship had polished off the genetic deficit predisposition with a view that the sexes are equal enough in their intellectual abilities that any biological differences between them is vastly outweighed by social pressures and discrimination that discourage girls and women from pursuing science and mathematics (see Jahoda, 1979). Thus, to this paradigm, scientists are made not born as scientific knowledge requires years of education and training and that women lack behind because they do not have 'cognitively stimulating environment' for science education (; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990; Kahle & Meece, 1994; Solomon, 1997; Xie et al. …

Determining the Effect of Selected Variables on Teacher Retention.

Abstract: Because occupational stress, burnout, and teacher attrition have become concerns in the human service and helping professions (Wisniewski & Gargiulo, 1997), much has been written about retaining teachers. Only recently have researchers discovered retention is more of a problem than recruitment. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of teacher retention to teacher education programs and state-mandated teacher certification examinations. Teacher Retention The National Center for Education Statistics reported that across the nation 9.3% of public school teachers leave before they complete their first year in the classroom, and over 1/5 of public school teachers leave their position within their first three years of teaching (Rosenow, 2005). According to Eggen (2001), up to 50% of beginning teachers exit the teaching profession within their first five years of service. With fewer people entering the profession, rising retirement numbers, and the growth of school age populations, teacher shortages have become a concern nationwide. Teacher Education Programs In order to decrease the number of teachers who are leaving the profession, Colbert and Wolff (1992) described in their article Surviving in Urban Schools: A Collaborative Model for a Beginning Teacher Support System a teacher retention program developed collaboratively between the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) and the California State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH). Two regions in the school district were selected to implement the program because the schools were located in low socioeconomic inner-city areas characterized by annual teacher attrition that had been higher than 50%. Colbert and Wolff's research concluded that beginning teacher support must become a high priority for school districts and university teacher education programs. The authors' research recommended five steps to accomplish this important conclusion: 1. Design and implement a collaborative training program between school districts and university schools of education of administrators and experienced teachers in classroom observation and peer coaching strategies. 2. Develop creative and flexible scheduling to provide release time to peer coaches and beginners to provide opportunities to build trusting relationships that can contribute to increased career satisfaction and retention of beginning teachers. 3. Encourage experienced teachers to participate in the professional growth of new teachers. 4. University schools of education must collaborate with local school districts and welcome them as equal partners in the education business, including matching school district and university calendars to prevent conflicts between activities at the schools and in the support system. 5. Collaboration between universities, school districts, state departments of education, and teacher credentialing commissions must continue to develop, regardless of the availability of external funding. A teacher education program emphasizing quality should include performance-based and competency-based components. If professional competency is achieved by the accomplishment of stated objectives that strive to describe learning that should take place, it is necessary to translate such objectives into performance criteria when possible (Brubaker, 1976). A model for selection and retention in teacher education was developed by Brubaker that included administrative organization, roles of student personnel services in the selection-retention program, criteria for admission to the program, introduction to teacher education, provisions for probationary status, performance components in the laboratory experience, and feedback concerning program success. Research by Chapman (1984) found that student teaching was an important part of preservice teacher preparation. …

Creating a Microteaching Evaluation Form: The Needed Evaluation Criteria

Abstract: Introduction The use of microteaching within teacher education is seen as an on-campus way of introducing preservice teachers to the complexities of teaching and as a bridge that connects theory to practice (Pringle, Dawson, & Adams, 2003). Throughout the years, various components have been changed or added to the format of on-campus microteaching performances. Feedback for microteaching performances derived from videotape playback and clinical supervisors have been slowly replaced by oral and written feedback from course instructors and preservice teacher candidates, especially with the financial and time constraints in many teacher education programs (Kpanja, 2001). The purpose of this study is to examine the potential of a written feedback form, a microteaching evaluation form, developed by the author for use by his preservice teacher candidates in assessing their microteaching performances. Literature Review Literature describes the use of microteaching as a beneficial and accepted element of preservice teacher education. Microteaching experiences provide preservice teachers with a number of benefits: first, it exposes preservice teachers to the realities of teaching; second, it introduces preservice teachers to their roles as teachers (Amobi, 2005; Hawkey, 1995; Kpanja, 2001; Wilkinson, 1996); third, it helps them to see the importance of planning, decision making, and implementation of instruction (Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1990); fourth, it enables them to develop and improve teaching skills (communication, public presentation, etc.) (Benton-Kupper, 2001; Wilkinson); and, finally it helps them build their confidence for teaching (Brent & Thomson, 1996). Other than bringing about effective teaching skills, microteaching also inculcates the value of reflective practice to preservice teachers (Amobi; Benton-Kupper; Jerich, 1989; Wilkinson). Some studies claim that preservice teachers who engage in microteaching are more receptive to feedback (Wilkinson), while others contend that microteaching encourages self-evaluation of self-perceptions and teaching behaviors (Brent & Thomson). For teacher educators, the implementation of microteaching into their courses enables both preservice teachers and themselves to engage in dialogue and discussion centered on making connections between theories of teaching and microteaching experiences (Brent & Thomson; Pringle, Dawson, & Adams, 2003). As an accepted element of preservice teacher education, microteaching has recently evolved from its traditional version to a number of modified versions within teacher education. Table 1 shows a comparison of the traditional version of microteaching and the modified versions of microteaching that currently exist in teacher education programs (Amobi, 2005; Brent & Thomson, 1996; Farris, 1991; Gess-Newsome & Lederman; 1990; Hawkey, 1995; Kpanja, 2001; Pringle, Dawson, & Adams, 2003; Wilkinson, 1996). The comparison is made by examining the aim, format, evaluation strategies, feedback strategies and the outcomes that underscore the two versions. One similarity between the two versions is the process of evaluation. In both versions, evaluation of preservice teacher's microteaching performance by evaluators leads to the generation of feedback and this feedback is used by the preservice teacher to interpret his or her microteaching performance. The comparison also reveals two differences. First, there is a shift from a dependence on clinical supervisors as evaluators to a dependence on course instructors and peers as evaluators. Second, feedback from videotape playback is being replaced by feedback from oral, written, and feedback forms. These two recent trends can be attributed to financial and time constraints faced by teacher education programs (Kpanja, 2001; Wilkinson, 1996). Regardless of the nature of evaluators, it is acknowledged that the process of evaluation and the resulting feedback are pertinent to the success of the preservice teacher's microteaching experiences (Amobi; 2005; Benton-Kupper, 2001; Wilkinson, 1996). …

Teacher Leaders at Work: Analyzing Standardized Achievement Data to Improve Instruction.

Abstract: Introduction and Literature Review A half century ago, standardized achievement test scores were primarily used for (a) informing teachers and parents about students' achievement relative to their peers, (b) helping place students in appropriate programs, and (c) justifying the allocation of supplemental resources. However, advances in the technology of standardized test taking, combined with the popular belief that testing improves student achievement, has led to uses of the standardized test results in ways not originally intended. Concerned educators have warned that some of these uses, e.g., evaluating schools, teachers, and as a requirement for grade promotion, are invalid and can have a negative impact on student learning (Popham, 2001a, 2001b). Consonant with the increasing public pressure on schools to increase student achievement has been the increasing use of standardized achievement test scores to inform instruction and curriculum. For example, test makers (e.g., Hoover et al., 2003) suggest that by comparing the student, classroom, or building scores with local and national norms, teachers can identify individual or group strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of adjusting the curriculum. The efficacy of this approach has been disputed by Popham (2001a, 2001b) who argues (a) that the descriptions of knowledge and skills on standardized tests are not clear enough to provide a focus for improving instruction and (b) that classroom assessments are the best source of data for informing instruction. Despite these caveats, there has been a proliferation of articles and texts addressing the analysis of student achievement data for the purpose of improving learning (e.g., Anderson et al., 2004; Killion, 2002; Johnson, 2002; Streifer, 2002; Bernhardt, 1998). All of these authors offer alternatives to the approaches historically associated with educational research, e.g., random samples and control groups. The first and most common approach is analyzing trends, i.e., determining whether an instructional intervention has positively influenced student achievement over time (Streifer, 2002; Johnson, 2002; Bernhardt, 1998). A second approach is to disaggregate the data, i.e., group achievement scores by the students' ethnicity, gender, SES, or performance and then make comparisons. For example, a quartile analysis can compare subgroups by examining the percentages of students falling into the bottom, the two intermediate, and the top quartiles. This analysis can compare the progress of different student subgroups and could indicate whether instructional practices favor a particular group or groups of students (Johnson, 2002; Streifer, 2002). A third approach is to examine the relationship between student achievement scores and other indicators of student performance, e.g., grades, attendance, or discipline interventions (Johnson, 2002; Streifer, 2002). These school-based approaches to data analysis have not been widely taught in university-based research courses, in part because faculty have been trained in research methods more commonly employed in a university context. Unfortunately, this can mean the data analysis skills needed to lead a district through the school improvement process may not be included in graduate programs. The emphasis is often on research designs and analytical procedures that are not relevant to the environment of the practitioner: ... In all too many instances, statistics are taught in a theoretically rarefied atmosphere replete with hard-to-understand formulas and too few examples relevant to the daily life of education practitioners (Bracey, 1997, p. 2). Shifting to a more practice-based instruction has been increasingly recommended by national organizations, advisory groups, task forces, and accreditation agencies (Shakeshaft, 1999: Murphy & Forsyth, 1999). …

Relationship between Locus of Control and Health-Related Variables.

Abstract: Locus of Control (LOC) refers to an individual's personal belief that the events which occur in life are either a result of personal control and effort, or outside forces such as fate and luck. Perception of positive and negative events as being consequences of one's own actions and thereby under one's own personal control is known as internal LOC. In contrast, external LOC refers to the perception of positive or negative events being unrelated to one's own behavior and thereby beyond personal control. (Locus of Control and Cardiovascular Health, 2004). According to Harvey and Thomas (2004) LOC has been affiliated with academic performance and achievement in the professional realm, as well as health and psychological well-being. The authors describe internals as having a tendency to perform better on academic tasks than externals, and have more effective coping strategies which lead to better psychological adjustment. These enviable characteristics reduce the negative health effects associated with high stress. The theory of LOC was derived from Rotter's Social Learning Theory of 1954 (Rotter, 1982). Twelve years later, Rotter published his Locus of Control Scale to measure generalized perceptions of individuals toward internal or external LOC. Wallston, Wallston, Kaplan and Maides further expended on Rotter's theories by developing the construct of Health Locus of Control in 1976. These researchers first detected the use of LOC in the medical community in observations of recently diagnosed diabetics and medical professionals in a classroom setting. The medical staffers were attempting to get the patients and their families to develop an internal LOC that would better the chances of controlling their illness and improve overall quality of life (Kaplan, Maides, Wallston & Wallston, 1999). A Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) was developed in 1976 (Wallston, Wallston, & DeVellis, 1978). As an alternative tool, the MHLC could identify not only an individual's tendency toward internal or external behaviors, but further divide those who perceived control as coming from somewhere other than from within as blaming fate and luck or what became known as "powerful others". Mackey (2002) noted a great deal of research linked internal LOC to positive health beliefs and behaviors. According to the author, individuals with an internal LOC were more likely to seek health-related knowledge, successfully stop smoking, maintain better weight control, adhere to physician's prescriptions, use birth control effectively, seek preventative vaccines, use a seatbelt regularly, and practice proper dental hygiene. MacArthur and MacArthur (1999) added that a sense of control such as that experienced by internals led to improved emotional and mental health, reduced risk of heart disease, better self-rated health status, and lower morbidity. Additional studies have investigated a link between LOC and educational success, socioeconomic status and achievement among minorities. Brockway and Njus (1999) found students with an internal LOC were more likely to successfully adjust to the academic demands and social conditions of college. Another study (Dille and Mezack 1991) noted that internal community college students were more successful at distance education than their external counterparts, while Pugliese (1994) identified a link between course drop-out rates and students with an external LOC. Similar results were found by research conducted at Temple University (2004) which reported that students who had a very external LOC often believed that it was solely the teacher's responsibility to teach them and not their responsibility to learn (Classroom Management, 2004). With regard to socioeconomic status (SES) and LOC, MacArthur and MacArthur (1999) confirmed that higher SES has been positively associated with internal LOC. That is, the more a person perceived life events as being within their control, the more likely he/she was to achieve social and economic advancement. …

Shared Governance: An Analysis of Power on the Modern University Campus from the Perspective of an Administrator

Abstract: Definition "Shared governance refers to the shared responsibility between administration and faculty for primary decisions about the general means of advancing the general educational policy determined by the school's charter." (Flynn, 2005, p.1). This definition of shared governance is an excellent starting point for the exploration of the controversial and growing issue of shared governance on today's changing campuses. It does though raise some very important questions which need to be explored and ultimately decided upon if a truer understanding of the concept of shared governance is to be gained. The faculty While common sense and historical precedence dictate that faculty members are a crucial and seemingly irreplaceable component for offering a quality education, the question arises as to whether or not all faculty members are to be given equal power in making the important decisions that can determine a university's future. Tenure versus Non-Tenured Should only tenured faculty members be permitted to participate in any shared decision making? Although tenure faculty members have a strong understanding of the history and needs of the university, one could strongly argue that to restrict shared decision making to these individuals alone would produce a vision for the institution that is more strongly rooted in the past than the future. Since institutions of higher learning are often in flux in an ever changing world this restriction could prove to be disastrous for any real progressive change on a campus. New faculty members, while lacking the strong institutional historical perspective of their tenured colleagues, very often provide valuable insights that are crucial to the vision and mission of the university. This is particular true of faculty members who have worked on other campuses. On the other hand, these faculty members though may not have forged as strong a commitment to the institution as those who have worked there for many years. This dilemma can easily be carried forth to include full-time versus part-time faculty members. Should the opinions of part-time instructors be ignored or excluded based simply upon the number of courses they teach? If one adds in other mitigating factors such as the number of faculty members, the size of the university, the question of seniority, the role of employee unions or bargaining agents, or a host of a thousand other factors that work to further subdivide the faculty, the dilemma grows. As a result, due to the complexities and intricacies of these many factors, no definitive prototype can be offered as a model for campuses to follow. Instead, like quicksand, there is no solid ground on which to base a definite answer to the overriding and consuming question of which faculty members should be allowed to participate in the decision making process and which should be excluded. The only answer to providing some form of consistency is for faculty members and administrators on each campus to decide who will be allowed to actively participate in shared governance. Only they can best understand the subtle interplay of campus life that affords the institution the best possible prospect for achieving its academic goals. As a general rule then, until a specific tried and true model can be developed, one is hard pressed to claim that campus faculty should be given an equal voice in the decision making process of the institution, or more specifically be given carte blanche in any specific realm. The administration Closely related to which faculty members should be entrusted with decision making powers is the need to identify those professionals who comprise the administration. For example, are chairpersons by nature of their responsibilities administrators or simply faculty members performing administrative tasks? While this and similar questions can produce an unending and unclear debate, for the purposes of this article the author defines administrators as those individuals who hold senior level administrative posts from the Division Chairperson or Dean level upward. …

When Preservice Teachers Struggle or Fail: Mentor Teachers' Perspectives.

Abstract: The Question As a Professional Development School (Hohnes Group, 1986: 1990), teachers at Alpha Senior High School have been intensively involved in preservice education efforts for over a decade. Alpha Senior High School faculty have served in a number of teacher educator capacities including teacher education program development, teaching and co-teaching various methods courses at the university, and serving as university field instructors, as well as acting as mentor teachers for preservice teachers. The last role, serving as mentor teachers to preservice teachers during their undergraduate preparation and internship, has clearly become a more complex activity at Alpha Senior High School than merely handing over classrooms of students to preservice teachers. Mentor teachers frequently "talk out" their thinking and decision making for their interns, co-plan and co-teach with interns, observe and critique intern planning and teaching, and participate as equal partners with the university field instructor in evaluation of the intern's progress. At Alpha Senior High School, teachers have begun to think more explicitly as teacher educators. They have begun to assume many of the roles and responsibilities typically seen as the province of university representatives especially in the arena of intern evaluation. Several years ago, a mentor teacher and university field instructor were working with an intern who was experiencing serious problems in achieving program standards necessary to enable recommendation for certification. Over the course of many lengthy consultations about how best to support the intern while maintaining adherence to the program standards, it became apparent that this was not the first time the mentor teacher had to deal with the possibility that the preservice teacher with whom she was working might not successfully complete the program. This realization spawned many conversations between the mentor teacher and university field instructor concerning the effects preservice teacher struggles and failure had on the mentor teacher. The activity of working with a preservice teacher during an internship is a complex and intensive one. It represents a huge investment on the part of mentor teachers. Given this investment, it is not surprising that the effects of preservice teacher failure on the mentor teacher would be complex. We began to question how preservice teacher failure might affect the mentor teacher's conceptualization of herself as a teacher educator. How might it affect the mentor teacher's beliefs about what it means to help someone learn to teach? In what ways might it affect her conceptualization of herself as a teacher? We knew that we were not the only ones chewing on these questions. Several other teachers at Alpha Senior High School had also experienced preservice teacher struggles and failures in some form over their years as mentor teachers. As we began to talk about our experiences and share our questions, it became clear that while we certainly believed that we were not alone in having to struggle with the effects of preservice teacher struggles and failure, little had been written on the subject. An ERIC search revealed limited citations for articles concerning preservice teacher failure, and none on the effects of preservice teacher struggles or failure on the mentor teachers. Of the few citations available, most focused primarily on trying to identify the causes or characterizations of preservice teacher failure (Butler, 1998; Harwood, Collins, & Sudzina, 2000; Mason, 1999; Riner & Jones, 1993: Schmidt & Knowles, 1995: Sudzina & Knowles, 1993). We were unable to locate any research or anecdotal material on the implications preservice teachers' struggles and failures might have for mentor teachers. This article, therefore, represents an opportunity not only to share our stories and what we've learned from our experiences, but to also place this issue on the table for wider discussion and investigation. …

A Survey of Teachers' Perceptions of the Function and Purpose of Student Support Teams.

Abstract: Student intervention assistance programs go by a number of names depending upon the state where they are found. Some state educational legislation refers to these teams as "student study teams", "building based student support teams", "multidisciplinary teams", or "student support teams". No matter their designation, these teams are mandated by state and federal legislation to support students' educational functioning through systematic group problem solving, and intervention. They also provide procedural safeguards for children's rights to a free, appropriate, public education (Ross, 1995). Teams also may have multiple functions. For example, teams may evaluate and refer students with physical medical or orthopedic problems, speech and language problems, and children with vision and hearing difficulties to appropriate community or school based services. These teams also have the additional function of identifying students who may have a disability that is causally related to the student's lack of progress in the regular education curriculum (Terrasi, Sennet, Macklin, 1999). However, the primary purpose of these teams is to provide educational assistance for students at risk of academic failure. This assistance may take many forms. For instance, one-to-one instruction or peer tutoring may help a student who is having a problem in a specific subject. Behavioral interventions may be used with students whose behavior becomes problematic or visits to the school counselor may help a student who is having difficulty coping with peer pressure. Teachers also benefit from team intervention. Mentors may be provided for new teachers, provision of novel classroom management techniques, or strategies for helping difficult to teach students are a few of the interventions that the team may recommend for improving the classroom environment. However, a number of studies have suggested that these teams provide less support for students at risk and serve more as a conduit for special education placement (VanDerHeyden, Witt, Naquin, 2003; Gottlieb & Gottlieb, 1991, Soodak & Podell, 1993). Other studies suggest that the referral process contains bias that results in the over identification and placement of minority students (Artiles & Trent, 1994; Bahr, & Fuchs, 1991; Hosp & Reschly, 2003; MacMillian & Lopez, 1996) and students who demonstrate physical characteristics that are considered outside of the norm (Andrews, Wisniewski, Mulick, 1997) in special education. Others suggest that the lack of training and teacher preparation results in the problems that appear to be inherent in the process (Costenbader & Swartz, 1992; Georgiou, Christou, Stavrindes, and Panaoura, 2002; Gresham, MacMilliam, & Bocian, 1997; Havey, 1998; Soodak & Podell, 1993) Still other studies suggest that teachers themselves are bias in their perception of certain students and consequently this bias results in the referral of students for psychological evaluation leading to special education placement (Huebner & Gould, 1991; Knotek, 2003; Sbarra & Pianta, 2001; Schwartz, Wolfe & Cassar, 1997). However, very little research has investigated teacher's perception of the function and purpose of Student Support Teams (SSTs). The current study investigated teacher training, teacher participation and teacher understanding of the relationship between the student support team function and special education services. Additionally, data was gathered concerning parent and administrative support, how teachers come to serve on student support teams, types of compensation, and length of time teams met. Method Respondents Respondents in this survey were 123 regular education teachers (females =105, males=16). Two individuals did not specific gender. Respondents were from two elementary schools in adjoining states in the southern United States. In addition, participants were recruited from a Graduate class in Education from a state university and a Regional Workshop for teachers. …

Successful African-American Mathematics Students in Academically Unacceptable High Schools.

Abstract: The current era of educational accountability has been dubbed a dark period in American education for a significant segment of the minority population (Kohn, 2000). For African-American students attending inner-city schools it has been particularly sinister. Spurred by the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), state accountability systems have disproportionately subjected inner-city schools and its students (most of whom are African American) to its callous repercussions: repercussions which include publicly identifying low-performing schools in the media. Steele (2004) asserts that the consequences from failure to meet accountability goals (specifically testing) consistently contributes to dropout rates among African Americans and puts their lives on a course of restricted opportunity. Drug and alcohol abuse, high crime rates, incessant violence, and extreme poverty are just a few of the negative environmental factors that create even more challenging educational circumstances for inner-city schools and their surrounding communities (Dandridge, Edwards, and Pleasants 2000). While it is obvious that "these schools need help desperately," preliminary evidence indicates states and districts are frequently slow to aggressively improve or overhaul failing schools (American Federation of Teachers, 1999; Brady, 2003). Nonetheless, there are pillars of success in low-performing schools that are frequently overshadowed and perhaps unknown to the public. Most conspicuously unnoticed are high-achieving students in mathematics. Few would disagree with the conjecture that mathematics has been the proverbial Achilles heel for students attending low-performing schools; therefore it seems appropriate to make the central focus of this study those students who stand out academically despite the dreadful conditions present in their school and community. Accordingly, it is an objective of this study to contribute to the limited research associated with state-designated poor schools and high-achieving African-American mathematics students attending such schools. This study chronicles such students' journeys by examining the following questions: 1. What are the reasons why successful mathematics students have been able to thrive in academically unacceptable schools? 2. Why they have chosen to stay in these academically unacceptable schools despite having the option to leave for a better performing school? NCLB and Louisiana's Accountability System By virtue of the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the federal government yielded jurisdiction over public schools to individual states. This formality notwithstanding, the U.S. federal government has flexed its financial muscle over the years to dictate the manner in which states operate their public schools. Rose (2004) indicates that "NCLB moved the federal effort to influence schools to a new and higher level--more aggressive, focused, and directive (p. 121)." This new legislation promises an important shift in efforts at all levels to improve the quality of public education (Rittner & Lucas, 2003). NCLB seeks to close the persistent achievement gap through a multifaceted and comprehensive approach that is based on accountability for results; an emphasis on doing what works based on scientific research; expanded parental options; and expanded local control and flexibility (Thompson, 2002; US Department of Education, 2002). In addition, NCLB requires states to publicly identify low-performing schools. Furthermore, those schools identified as poor performing, are required to offer students the option of attending higher performing schools through the school choice mandate. School choice policies were upheld by the US Supreme Court in 2002 and hailed by the US Department of Education as "perhaps the most important education decision (by the Supreme Court) since Brown v. …

Effects of Pre-Teaching and Re-Teaching on Math Achievement and Academic Self-Concept of Students with Low Achievement in Math.

Abstract: Literature Review Despite continued concern and effort to meet their needs, low achieving students continue to represent a sizable population in schools (Manning & Baruth, 1996), with the needs of low achievers in math alone tending to represent 4% to 7% of students (Fuchs, Fuchs & Prentice, 2004). Low achievers have been identified using a variety of criteria, typically by comparing their achievement to that of their peers. For example, Fuchs et al. (2004), as well as Slavin (1989), identify low achievers as those students performing one to two years behind their same age peers. In addition to academic difficulties, low achievers are vulnerable to lower self-concept. In broad terms, self-concept reflects one's self-perception, as well as feelings of worth and satisfaction (Joseph, 1979). Evidence clearly indicates an interaction between self-concept and achievement, with achievement effecting self-concept and vice versa (Beane & Lipka, 1987). While the directionality of the causal relationship is not clear, research does indicate a relationship between achievement and self-concept (e.g.; Hamachek, 1995; Rumbaugh & Brown, 2000). Self-concept can also be broken down into context-specific domains (Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1976). For example, Boersma and Chapmen (1992) define academic self-concept as stable attitudes and feelings one possesses involving her/his capacity to be successful on school-based activities, and research supports this differentiation (Hamachek, 1995). Thus, it follows that low self-concept can be seen as a general factor impacting achievement; or, one or more components of self-concept may impact achievement in a particular content area(s). Identifying effective instructional strategies for low achievers has become increasingly important. These typically take the form of supplemental programs that provide instruction outside of the classroom. For example, after-school tutoring has improved math achievement in low achievers (Hock, Pulvers, Desher, & Schumaker, 2001). Supplemental instruction approaches can be classified according to sequence of provision. Specifically, supplemental instruction can be provided before (i.e., pre-teaching) or after (i.e., re-teaching) initial exposure to academic material in the classroom. Re-teaching is a common, if not the standard, strategy for assisting students to acquire previously unattained academic objectives (Harris & Sipay, 1985; Lewis & Lynch, 1988). It is characterized by follow-up instruction and practice subsequent to classroom instruction (Collins, 1998). According to Slavin (1985), extensive studies across disciplines support the effectiveness of re-teaching as a means to increase academic achievement for students with low ahcievment. For example, the previously noted study by Hock et al. (2001) found post-instruction after-school tutoring (i.e., re-teaching) effectively increased math performance for low achieving students. In contrast to post-instruction approaches, pre-teaching is based on the tenet that learning is facilitated through advanced introduction of key concepts and terms that serve as "cognitive anchors" upon which academic content can be organized (Ausubel, 1960). Examples of pre-teaching strategies include advanced organizers, performance objectives, and graphic organizers. According to Bassoppo-Moyo (1997), structured and organized pre-teaching tasks allow students to become familiar with what will be encountered and required, as well as the opportunity to integrate new material with previously acquired content and experiences. Although evidence supports the effectiveness of pre-instructional strategies across a broad age range, existing research has largely focused on reading and reading-based subject content. For example, pre-teaching of critical vocabulary, as opposed to non-central vocabulary, improved students' reading comprehension by helping them identify target concepts (Wixson, 1986). …