Showing papers in "Elementary School Journal in 1974"

Women in Aprons: The Female Stereotype in Children's Readers

Abstract: Yes, children's books keep alive a sense of nationality; but they also keep alive a sense of humanity. They describe their native land lovingly, but they also describe faraway lands where unknown brothers live. They understand the essential quality of their own race; but each of them is a messenger that goes beyond mountains and rivers, beyond the seas, to the very ends of the world in search of new friendships. Every country gives and every country receives-innumerable are the exchanges-and so it comes about that in our first impressionable years, the universal republic of childhood is born [1: 46]. A quotable passage indeed-an impassioned cry against prejudice and hatred, a plea for respect and understanding of the humanity of all people. These are the values, says Hazard, that are to be built into all worthy children's books. Yet, ironically, Hazard himself is guilty of an insidious prejudice, a prejudice so ingrained in the history of civilization that even Hazard could not discern it in his writing. A few

Sex Differences in Mathematics-Learning: Why???

Abstract: Before children enter school and until about the fourth grade, mathematics achievement appears to be essentially the same for boys and girls. After fourth grade, when differences in achievement appear, they tend to be in boys' favor if higher level cognitive tasks are being measured and in girls' favor if lower level cognitive tasks are being measured (1). Although few data are available concerning the mathematics achievement of high-school boys and girls, it appears safe to conclude that highschool boys achieve at higher levels than high-school girls and that the difference in achievement increases as adolescence progresses. This superiority of boys in mathematics achievement is further accentuated when many more boys than girls elect to continue their study of mathematics throughout high school and post-high school education (2). There is a moral responsibility as well as an economic necessity to give girls as well as boys opportunities to learn mathematics (3). Since there is reason to believe that boys' achievement in mathematics is higher than girls', it is important to identify, if possible, the factors that may contribute to the lower mathematical performance of females.

When Children Ask about Death

Abstract: "In our nursery school, a hamster died and some of the children asked about him. In answering I said that the other hamster would not die, that the guinea pig was all right, and that we would buy a new hamster at the pet store. Did I do the right thing?" "The father of a four-year-old neighbor died suddenly while the family was at home. His mother told him that Jesus had taken his father. I overheard him say to another child, 'Bad Jesus,' to which the other responded, 'No, good Jesus,' and they began to shout at each other. How should the mother have explained the death to the child?"

Rudolf Steiner: Unknown Educator.

Abstract: Men who have new ideas that are not in tune with the thinking of their day are rarely recognized during their lifetime. Too often their ideas and contributions, though known in a small circle of followers, do not surface in the public domain for decades. Rudolf Steiner is one of these men. He and his students have established the second largest nondenominational private school system in the world. Known as the Waldorf Schools, or the Steiner Schools, the system consists of a hundred schools for normal children scattered throughout eighteen countries. Ten of these schools are in the USA. In addition, Steiner and his students founded 123 residential and day schools for handicapped children. These schools are also scattered throughout many countries. Steiner and his schools are almost unknown in educational circles. Few educators in elementary schools or even in universities have heard of him. Neither he nor his schools are mentioned in the educational literature -journals or books. Neill's Summerhill in England, attended at best by forty to fifty students, is internationally known. It is discussed in most textbooks on education and in educational

Moral Development Through Children's Literature

Abstract: Traditionally, American education has accepted the responsiblity of developing the individual's capacities as a human being and helping him become a contributing member of our society. Historically, instruction on morality has been included as a significant part of this education. Recently, we have abandoned any formal treatment of morality in the classroom lest we offend some pupils or indoctrinate others. However, moral decisions are made every day in classrooms across the country. It is impossible for the schools to stay out of values. Children's values develop during the school years. Values are inevitably influenced by the school structure, the adults who work in it, the relations of all involved, and the choice of subject matter and materials. Educators and others who work with children are becoming increasingly aware that values cannot be legislated from external sources. Meaningful decisions can be made only by the child. It is logical, therefore, to help children develop a means of making constructive and beneficial moral deci-

Sex-Role Stereotyping and Prekindergarten Teachers

Abstract: There has been much debate about behavioral differences between the sexes. However, until we treat the sexes equally, we cannot know what differences, if any, exist. My thesis is that we do not treat girls and boys equally. This unequal treatment, however, can be subtle. Most teachers would say that they believe in equality and that they treat girls and boys alike. But do they really? The schools are one of the major socializing institutions. The importance of teachers' attitudes toward sex roles must not be underestimated. There is a growing interest in earlier admission to school. We have programs for three-year-olds as well as four-yearolds. With the growth of day care, it is crucial that educators become aware of their prejudices, not only in racial stereotyping but also in sexual stereotyping. The questions are manifold. What attitudes and beliefs do teachers have toward girls and boys? What attitudes and beliefs do children bring to school? What expectations do parents have? How far will parents permit changes to go? How are sex-role stereotypes enacted in classroom activities? How can these activities be changed?

Who Gets Better Results with Young Children-Experienced Teachers or Novices?

Abstract: teaching competence offer new possibilities for research on teaching. The tests may prove useful, not only to researchers, but also to educators interested in the selection and the preparation of teachers. General descriptions of tests to measure teacher competence may be found in the writings of Millman (1) and in the Performance-based Teacher Education Series, papers commissioned by the Committee on Performance-based Teacher Education, a committee of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (2). Experimental findings on the validity of the performance test as a measure of teacher proficiency are reported in the work of Justiz (3), Taneman (4), and Popham (5). The Popham study invites special attention. Popham developed performance tests of teaching skill in social science, auto mechanics, and electronics. In these tests an individual's teaching prowess is a measure of his ability to bring about specified changes in learners. In Popham's study, the performance of experienced, certified teachers was compared with the performance of individuals who had no training as teachers. In none of the three comparisons did teachers significantly outperform nonteachers.

Relating Reading and Spelling: A Comparison of Methods

Abstract: According to Horn, the objective of any instructional program in spelling is likely to be "to help children learn the words they will need to write as adults and the words needed in their present writing, both in and out of school" (1: 1338). To meet this goal, programs of study have been developed and published in the form of spellers for school use. Spelling textbooks, however, differ markedly in the lists of words to be learned at particular grade levels (2, 3). Furthermore, many published series of spellers offer no program for first grade. One purpose of the experiment reported here was to assess the merits of teaching spelling to first-grade pupils. In addition to the differences in word lists, there are differences in sources of words to be taught in spelling programs. Some programs are based on studies of children's writing (4), and some are based on studies of adult use (5). Spelling books or lists of words arbitrarily chosen for spelling instruction may, therefore, differ greatly in their appropriateness in promoting spelling achievement among a particular group of children. One purpose of this experiment was to compare sources of word lists. The spelling instruction that children receive is sometimes in-

The Expanded Self-Contained Classroom

Abstract: The changes that have affected the lives of Americans during the past forty years have been so sweeping that their dimensions are almost incomprehensible. Atomic power, computers that always win, and men on the moon are part of everyday lives. The book, The Big Change or America Transforms Itself (1), dramatically described the many revolutions that transformed 1900 America into 1950 America. Yet the changes graphically pictured by Allen were only a prelude to the pervasive changes described by Toffler in his book, Future Shock (2). The rate of change has become so swift that it may be as potent a force as change itself. While tumultuous change whirls through our lives with increasing speed, the educational community has focused its limited resources on what seems to be the reinvention of the wheel. Educators are trying to meet the needs of the future by fortifying the behavior of the past. Schools and educational technology have not kept pace with the knowledge explosion and changing society. The substantial amount of knowledge available to be taught has, by necessity, put children and teachers in a frustrating position. As Stuart Chase said, "Much of

Open-Traditional-What Is the Difference?

Abstract: Since Charles Silberman turned to informal education in the British primary schools as the solution to our educational problems, American elementary schools have been constructing learning centers and opening their classrooms to foster exploration, inquiry, and independent thinking. It is assumed that an open classroom develops creative thinking, creative writing, independence in performing tasks, and confidence, while a traditional classroom stifles this kind of thinking and behavior. There is little research evidence, however, that pupils in an open classroom are superior to traditionally taught pupils in certain behavioral traits and in the ability to think creatively. The purpose of the study reported here was to determine whether pupils in an open classroom differ from traditionally taught pupils on four variables: creative thinking, creative writing, independent decision-making in performing tasks, and self-confidence when facing a new situation. Torrance, in his studies on creativity, found that self-confidence, curiosity, and independent decision-making were among the behavioral traits that identified the

Censorship-Threat over Children's Books

Abstract: Charlie and the Chocolate Factory "... one of the most tasteless books ever written for children" (1). "Full of magical nonsense and uproarious situations, with a tiny germ of a moral artfully inserted in each chapter" (2). In the Night Kitchen "In the Night Kitchen celebrates childhood sexuality-or at least ... sensuality" (3). "... a richly detailed, imaginative, witty dream-adventure" (4). "... a masturbatory fantasy" (5). "... heavy, self-conscious, pointless, and-worst of all-dull" (6). Sylvester and the Magic Pebble "... beautiful pictures ... greatly extend the kindly humor and the warm, unself-conscious tenderness" (7). "... subtle propaganda that would make a Goebbels smile" (8). Contradictory appraisals as far apart as those quoted here stir lively debates in reviews of books for children. The criticism and the controversies that sometimes ensue are healthy responses. They reflect the differences

Substitute: A Psychological Study

Abstract: Separation The effects of maternal separation on a child's emotional and cognitive development have received attention (2, 3), but the authors could not find in either the educational literature or the psychological literature any discussion of the effects of temporary teacher separation on a pupil's functioning. Despite the lack of empirical research, we know from experience that if there is a good relationship between teacher and pupil, the children often react in some way when their teacher is temporarily absent. Our first hypothesis is that the pupils' reaction to separation from the teacher is parallel to (although less intense than) the response to separation from a parental figure. This assumption is reasonable if we accept the notion that children often perceive their teachers as an extension of parents and transfer attachments and conflicts from parents to teachers. This transfer of feelings is understandable, given the length of time the child spends with the teacher each day, the child's general emotional dependence on adult figures, and the parenting function manifest in the teacher's role. If we view the regular teacher as an extension of the child's parents, we can more clearly understand the pupils' reactions to a teacher's absence and appreciate the underlying reasons for the pupils' response to the substitute teacher. If we compare classroom relationships to those in a family group, the regular teacher would be analogous to a natural parent and the pupils to the parent's children. If we extend the analogy further, the substitute teacher would represent a stepparent or a foster parent. Folklore and popular stories emphasize the tense relationships between stepparents, natural parents, and their children. The stepparent is often portrayed as cruel and depriving-one who makes life miserable for the stepchildren and maintains an uneasy truce with the natural

Situations and Stereotypes: Variations in the School Administrator's Role

Abstract: Stereotypes play a large part in shaping what is expected of men and women engaged in a particular job (1). Often, however, there is a sizable discrepancy between the stereotype and the reality. Many occupations are scarcely known to outsiders. Even occupations that have an accurate public image may lose that distinction through changing conditions (2). Work is not performed in a vacuum, but in a setting, or situation. This situation can have a profound effect on an occupational role, transforming it to such a degree that people are actually doing work quite different from that usually associated with their occupation (3). The public school principal provides an example. Although it is generally assumed that the principal is the instructional leader of his school, few principals concentrate on education. Instead, their attention is likely to be diverted to other problems that have little direct connection with pedagogy. The emphasis given to these other problems varies from one principal to the next, but is not simply a matter of personal choice. On the contrary, these variations appear to be systematically related to situational factors over which the principal has little or no control: the size of his school (4), the phase of the school's history (5), neighborhood stability (5), and the social class of the pupils (6).

Modeling as a Teaching Technique

Abstract: concept has been learned is whether the learner can generalize the concept to appropriate situations that he has not encountered before. In almost all the nearly twenty experimental studies that we have done, we have found evidence of conceptual transfer. We have also found that concepts learned through modeling and imitation were often retained over a significant period of time. Concepts learned vicariously were stored and could be retrieved after a considerable length of time. Ideas can be taught through modeling, but special care must be given to the organization of the task the model performs. It is difficult, at this time, to summarize all the findings that are important to teachers. We are developing a teaching manual on the use of modeling procedures for the National Program on Early Childhood Education. Perhaps the most important finding is the one just touched on: that care in the arrangement of materials is essential. The second variable we have been studying is the role of th observer's descriptions during observational learning. We are in the early stages of this research, but have found that descriptions by the child during observational learning -when the child is over five years of age-can interfere with learning (5). It is better to observe passively while the model performs. We have also found that any relevant verbalization by the model, or by some person other than the learner, during modeling increases the speed with which the child learns a concept (6). The most powerful package, then, is one that couples modeling with verbal explanation. The type of instructions that the model gives during modeling is of great importance; we have found that responding is facilitated when the verbalization accompanying modeling is specific and comprehensive(7). Observational learning is increased if the stimuli are presented in any natural order that reflects the logical structure of the task. If we are teaching a child to tell ti , it is much easier to teach this skill when the model responds to hand positions going in clockwise fashion around the clock rather than in some abstract or random order. These are a few procedures we have isolated that a teacher might use to increase her effectiveness as

Personalizing Handwriting Instruction

Abstract: Handwriting instruction is generally considered an appropriate part of the language arts program in the primary grades. After the transition to cursive, however, handwriting instruction is often neglected and may deteriorate to a simple admonition: "Use your best writing and do neat work." Too often it is assumed that children have mastered the basics of handwriting and should be on their own. The assumption is usually ill founded. Some teachers simply may not know how to help children extend the basic skills they begin learning in the early grades. It is not sufficient to tell a child to "work on" his handwriting, or even to set him to copying a row of letters that he does not form well. These techniques, and older methods such as having children draw rows of ovals and lines, are too general. They are comparable to saying to a child, "You must work on phonics." As in any skill area, the child must be aware of specifics. The teacher must help the child see what he needs to work on. Once shortcomings have been identified, it is the teacher's responsibility to provide materials and activities to

How Children Learn: A Developmental Approach

Abstract: The question of how children (or people of any age) learn has long concerned teachers and other professionals. Any teacher who has been frustrated by the problems of a "slow learner" or a "problem child" has asked this question and searched back over his professional preparation for an answer, usually with little or no success. Scientists in education, psychology, biology, sociology, and anthropology have advanced many theories, philosophies, hypotheses, and just plain guesses about the nature of the fascinating and critical human function called "learning." In the barrage of conflicting ideas, the classroom teacher may question the value of science and research. For while the battles over theory rage on, the teacher continues to face the same problems on Monday that she faced on Friday without, it seems, any more cogent answers. Yet, with the advent of the developmental approach to human learning, many of the earlier difficulties associated with educationsuch as evaluation, objectives, goals, and strategies-have taken on a semblance of clarity. Simply stated, the developmental approach restricts education and research to behaviors that are observable. Such an approach will be familiar to the teacher who has read of or used

Classroom Discussions for Personal Growth and Democratic Problem-Solving.

Abstract: What matters deeply to a child may unintentionally, but easily, be overlooked by an adult. This lack of understanding can lead to apparently unprovoked anger, resentment, and disruptive or otherwise negative behavior on the part of children. Such a gap in understanding was uncovered during a discussion meeting with a third-grade class at one of the elementary schools in Fort Jackson, South Carolina. A girl said that she was feeling unhappy because the reading teacher never chose her as a helper. Others quickly chimed in, complaining that they, too, had never been chosen for this job. Both the chosen and the unchosen agreed that it was not fair for some children always to be overlooked in this way. Further discussion resulted in a decision that all the children who had been over-