Showing papers in "Journal of Advertising in 2002"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the nature of interactivity and its underlying processes to determine the conditions in which interactivity may be both useful and detrimental in an advertising context, and they provide a concrete conceptualization and definition for interactivity that encompasses these various dimensions.
Abstract: Most perceptions of interactivity are that it is an inherently good thing, that it will change marketing and advertising as we know it. However, though there are obvious and intuitive advantages to interactivity, it may pose a disadvantage for marketing and advertising in some conditions. In this article, we explore the nature of interactivity and its underlying processes to determine the conditions in which interactivity may be both useful and detrimental in an advertising context. We first discuss the multidimensional nature of the interactivity construct as it has appeared in the literature. We then provide a concrete conceptualization and definition of interactivity that encompasses these various dimensions. We argue that inconsistencies between the definitions and operationalizations found in previous studies make it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the role of interactivity but that these inconsistencies can be at least partly explained by a focus on the different dimensions of inte...
1,011 citations
TL;DR: A multistage method is used to identify and refine measures of perceived interactivity (MPI), and three overlapping constructs that are central to interactivity are explored: direction of communication, user control, and time.
Abstract: Interactivity is an often mentioned but seldom operationalized concept associated with the World Wide Web. Interactivity has been positioned conceptually as a process, a function, and a perception, but most operational definitions have focused on the process or function. This study develops scales to operationalize the perception-based approach to interactivity, because consumer perceptions are central to advertising research. Three overlapping constructs that are central to interactivity are explored: direction of communication, user control, and time. A multistage method is used to identify and refine measures of perceived interactivity (MPI). The 18 items included in the MPI offer researchers a tool for measuring a consumer perception central to advertising on the Web.
946 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored forced viewing of pop-up ads on the Internet to understand better how viewers come to define ads as irritating and decide to avoid them, and suggested perceived intrusiveness as the underlying mechanism by which the process occurs.
Abstract: This paper explores forced viewing of “pop-up ads” on the Internet to understand better how viewers come to define ads as irritating and decide to avoid them. Perceived intrusiveness was suggested as the underlying mechanism by which the process occurs. Antecedents of intrusiveness were identified that affect perceptions of ads as interruptions, including congruence of the advertisement content with the current task and intensity of cognition at the moment the ad pops up. The consequences of intrusiveness were shown to be caused by feelings of irritation and ad avoidance. The results provide an understanding of how consumers experience forced exposure situations in interactive environments and highlight implications for advertisers seeking to increase the effectiveness of on-line advertising.
842 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the concepts of virtual experience and presence, with the results largely supporting the proposition that 3D advertising is capable of enhancing presence and, to varying degrees, ultimately influencing the product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase intention of consumers.
Abstract: The conceptualization of a virtual experience has emerged because advancements in computer technology have led to a movement toward more multisensory online experiences Two studies designed to explore the concepts of virtual experience and presence are presented, with the results largely supporting the proposition that 3-D advertising is capable of enhancing presence and, to varying degrees, ultimately influencing the product knowledge, brand attitude, and purchase intention of consumers The marketing implications are immediate because the ability to create a compelling virtual product experience is not beyond the current capability of interactive advertising By creating compelling on-line virtual experiences, advertisers can potentially enhance the value of product information presented and engage consumers in an active user-controlled product experiences
726 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a scale is developed to tap an underlying construct that has not previously been measured and validated using samples in different experimental conditions and is found to be valid, reliable, and parsimonious.
Abstract: The current study examines consumers'perceptions of the intrusiveness of advertisements. A scale is developed to tap an underlying construct that has not previously been measured. Following traditional methods of scale development, the study uses expert-generated adjective lists, expands possible measures using a thesaurus, and finally reduces the number of items statistically to derive a new measure of advertising intrusiveness. The scale is validated using samples in different experimental conditions and is found to be valid, reliable, and parsimonious. The importance of such a scale for the field of advertising is discussed.
608 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the impact of ad style / context style congruency and context appreciation on the attitude toward the ad and recall was studied, and low involvement persons perceived ads embedded in a congruent context as clearer and more likable.
Abstract: Humorous, warm, and rational television and print advertisements are tested in similar television and print contexts. The impact of ad style / context style congruency and context appreciation on the attitude toward the ad and recall was studied. Results show that low involvement persons perceived ads embedded in a congruent context as clearer and more likable. High involvement persons perceived ads embedded in a contrasting context as having a higher likeability and clarity. Ads shown in a highly appreciated television or print context resulted in a more positive attitude toward the ad. As opposed to a print environment, in a television context, ad content and brand recall were positively influenced by a positively appreciated context.
409 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a structural equation model of charitable event sponsorship was proposed, which showed that a significant negative path leading from the negative attributions construct to the outcome construct was not significant.
Abstract: On the basis of balance theory, corporate sponsorship of a well-liked charitable event is hypothesized to result in significant enhancement of consumer-perceived corporate community relations. However, on the basis of attribution theory, it is proposed that subjects would employ negative attributions (i.e., corporate self-interest) to explain the sponsorship. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that a structural equation model of charitable event sponsorship will show a significant negative path leading from the negative attributions construct to the outcome construct. As predicted, event sponsorship resulted in a significant enhancement of corporate community relations. However, the hypothesized path was not significant. The effects of sponsorship linkage on the outcome variable were largely mediated through the positive attributions construct.
287 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Delphi method was used to engage a diverse group of advertising experts in a dialogue to reconsider those elements and construct a new definition of advertising, with the ultimate aim of constructing an improved definition.
Abstract: Traditional definitions of advertising include a series of elements that distinguish the field from others. Each innovation in communication has been used for advertising, and in some way, each has changed advertising, which in turn has changed the set of elements used in its definition. However, there are or should be some essential elements that determine whether an activity is advertising. Unfortunately, a discussion identifying these elements is lacking in the marketing and advertising literature. This study is designed to begin an open discussion of what constitutes those essential elements, with the ultimate aim of constructing an improved definition of advertising. The Delphi method, originally developed for financial forecasting, is used to engage a diverse group of advertising experts in a dialogue to reconsider those elements and construct a new definition of advertising.
284 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the relative effectiveness of four types of spokespersons for a hedonic and a utilitarian retail service was investigated, and the hypothesized contingency relationship between spokesperson type and service type was supported.
Abstract: Recent growth in the U.S. economy has been in the service sectors, and increased understanding of the marketing and advertising of services is critical to sustaining this growth. This paper investigates issues related to the advertising of common retail services. Results from an empirical study into the relative effectiveness of four types of spokespersons for a hedonic and a utilitarian retail service indicate that a created character fits well with the hedonic service but not with the utilitarian service. The celebrity spokesperson performed well for both types of services, but effects varied across service type. The hypothesized contingency relationship between spokesperson type and service type was supported.
240 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of context-induced psychological responses on the processing of magazine advertisements were examined using a real-life survey design instead of an experimental design, and the influence of thematic congruence between magazines and advertisements was studied.
Abstract: The effects of context-induced psychological responses have primarily been studied in experimental television settings. Contrary to previous research, this study examines the effects of context-induced psychological responses on the processing of magazine advertisements. Furthermore, a real-life survey design was used instead of an experimental design. Test ads were placed in the regular circulation of three magazine titles, and a representative sample of subscribers (n=263) was interviewed face-to-face. In addition to psychological responses, the influence of thematic congruence between magazines and advertisements was studied. Results show that magazine-induced liking and positive feelings had a positive influence on attitude toward the ad. Furthermore, thematically congruent advertisements were better remembered than incongruent advertisements.
173 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of curiosity on the effectiveness of Internet advertising was investigated and it was shown that curiosity increases interest and learning relative to a strategy that provides detailed product information, while curiosity does not dramatically increase the observed quantity of search in their study.
Abstract: This research investigates the effect of curiosity on the effectiveness of Internet advertising. In particular, we identify processes that underlie curiosity resolution and study its impact on consumer motivation and learning. The dataset from our simulated Internet experiment includes process tracking variables (i.e., clickstream data from ad-embedded links), traditional attitude and behavioral intention measures, and open-ended protocols. We find that a curiosity-generating advertising strategy increases interest and learning relative to a strategy that provides detailed product information. Furthermore, though curiosity does not dramatically increase the observed quantity of search in our study, it seems to improve the quality of search substantially (i.e., time spent and attention devoted to specific information), resulting in better and more focused memory and comprehension of new product information. To enhance the effectiveness of Internet advertising of new products, we recommend a curios...
TL;DR: In this article, a qualitative content assessment suggests that rhetorical figures were prevalent throughout the period and that more layering of multiple figures and less explanation of figures over time were observed in U.S. magazines.
Abstract: Rhetorical advertising style consists of the method or manner by which ad content is expressed; an example is the use of rhetorical figures such as metaphor or rhyme. Two studies of rhetorical style in U.S. magazine advertisements from 1954 to 1999 are reported. A qualitative content assessment suggests that rhetorical figures were prevalent throughout the period. In addition, the content assessment suggests more layering of multiple figures and less explanation of figures over time. The content analysis supports these trends and clarifies that one kind of figure—a destabilization trope that includes pun, metaphor, and irony—increased in incidence. Several possible explanations for these observed trends are considered, with a focus on how changes in rhetorical style may reflect the mutual adaptation of consumer and advertiser to changes in the advertising environment over this time period.
TL;DR: In a recent state election in Australia, this article found that the negative campaign run by the opposition was believed as much as the positive one run by an incumbent government, while voter involvement, satisfaction, and emotion affected the believability of the positive campaign, but only involvement and satisfaction affected the negative one.
Abstract: This study focuses on issues related to political advertising and electoral behavior through an examination of political advertising believability, the perceived value of information sources utilized and available in election campaigns, voter involvement, confidence, and emotion. The study was undertaken in a recent state election in Australia. Data were gathered from a sample of registered voters and analyzed using partial least squares. The results indicate that the negative campaign run by the opposition was believed as much as the positive campaign run by the incumbent government. Also, voter involvement, satisfaction, and emotion affected the believability of the positive campaign, but only involvement and satisfaction affected the negative campaign. The findings also indicate that non-paid media (television, newspapers) were valued more as sources of information by voters than were political advertising and the Internet.
TL;DR: The authors compared exposure to presidential ads via the Internet versus traditional channels in the 2000 presidential campaign and found that undecided voters exposed to Internet political advertising changed their vote choice to Al Gore, whereas undecideds who viewed the same spots on television changed their preferences in favor of George W. Bush.
Abstract: This experimental research compares exposure to presidential ads via the Internet versus traditional channels in the 2000 presidential campaign. The results indicate that undecided voters exposed to Internet political advertising changed their vote choice to Al Gore, whereas undecideds who viewed the same spots on television changed their preferences in favor of George W. Bush. The political cynicism levels of neither group were affected by exposure, but there were significant differences in the types of information seeking and political activity intentions between the two groups.
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of mood on ad processing was examined by orthogonally manipulating valence (positive versus negative) and arousal (moderate versus high) and measures of signal detection were used to provide evidence of the level (deep versus shallow) and nature of processing.
Abstract: The role of mood on ad processing was examined by orthogonally manipulating valence (positive versus negative) and arousal (moderate versus high). Measures of signal detection were used to provide evidence of the level (deep versus shallow) and nature (schematic versus data-driven) of processing. Results indicate that the arousal and valence dimensions of mood differentially affect ad processing, with arousal affecting the level of processing and valence influencing the nature of processing. The processing level was more shallow when the arousal level was high rather than moderate. Positive valence was associated with the greater use of schematic processing, whereas negative valence was associated with the greater use of data-driven processing. These results were obtained even when covarying out the effect of arousal and valence at ad retrieval. Therefore, the effects are attributable to the impact of the two dimensions of mood at encoding (i.e., during ad processing) versus ad retrieval (i.e., w...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors address how companies should react when celebrity endorsers with whom they wish to associate are blameless or blameworthy for causing negative events (e.g., accidents).
Abstract: Two studies address how companies should react when celebrity endorsers with whom they wish to associate are blameless or blameworthy for causing negative events (e.g., accidents). Research findings on stigmas suggest a linear endorser blame-company evaluation relationship, such that companies should associate (disassociate) with endorsers who have low (high) levels of blame for negative events. In contrast, research findings on defensive distortions suggest a nonmonotonic blame-evaluation relationship: Owing to the tendency to downgrade low blame persons so that they seem deserving of bad fate, companies benefit from associating with moderate, rather than low or high, blame celebrities. The current research suggests that the stage of the company-endorser relationship influences the pattern of findings and the type of endorser decisions companies should make. In Study 1 (n=121), consistent with stigma research, companies fared better when dismissing existing endorsers with high blame and keeping ...
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of positive, negative, and negative comparative political advertising on key variables in the political decision-making process were investigated. But negative political advertising had no effect on participants' cynicism, efficacy, or apathy.
Abstract: A total of 236 students participated in an experiment testing the effects of positive, negative, and negative comparative political advertising on key variables in the political decision-making process. Participants exposed to negative advertising found it less useful for political decision making and were more negative toward political campaigns than were participants exposed to positive advertising. Negative political advertising had no effect on participants' cynicism, efficacy, or apathy. The findings suggest that, though negative advertising contributes to citizens' disgust with campaigns, this strategy does not automatically increase citizens' cynicism or apathy.
TL;DR: The authors investigate the ability of skepticism toward advertising to moderate the effects of brand familiarity on evaluations of advertisements containing external reference prices (i.e., invoice prices), and find that consumers high in skepticism are positively influenced by a high invoice price (versus a low invoice price) when brand familiarity is high but not when brand popularity is low.
Abstract: The primary objective of this research is to investigate the ability of skepticism toward advertising to moderate the effects of brand familiarity on evaluations (i.e., offer fairness, acquisition value, and purchase intentions) of advertisements containing external reference prices (i.e., invoice prices). The results suggest that consumers high in skepticism toward advertising are positively influenced by a high invoice price (versus a low invoice price) when brand familiarity is high but not when brand familiarity is low. However, consumers low in skepticism toward advertising are positively influenced by a high invoice price (versus a low invoice price) regardless of whether brand familiarity is high or low.
TL;DR: The objectives, advantages, disadvantages, and measurement details of the different measures that track Web users' activity are discussed and how these metrics can be used to evaluate Web advertising and make informed decisions about advertising strategy are discussed.
Abstract: The focus in this research note is on the various tools used to measure the effectiveness of Web advertising. On the basis of a review of the literature and industry practice, we discuss the objectives, advantages, disadvantages, and measurement details of the different measures that track Web users' activity. We also discuss how these metrics can be used to evaluate Web advertising and make informed decisions about advertising strategy.
TL;DR: The authors compared negative and comparative political advertisements in terms of the cognitive responses their viewers have, and found that comparative ads provoked fewer source derogations but more counterarguments than did negative ads, which may reflect differences in the information processing styles the ads invite.
Abstract: This paper compares negative and comparative political advertisements in terms of the cognitive responses their viewers have. In an experiment using ads from a 2000 congressional race, comparative ads provoked fewer source derogations but more counterarguments than did negative ads, a contrast that may reflect differences in the information processing styles the ads invite. Comparative ads also prompted more support arguments, positive affect, and source bolstering, and they were viewed more favorably than were negative ads.
TL;DR: A survey of media directors of interactive advertising agencies regarding how they price, evaluate, and pretest banner ads was conducted by as mentioned in this paper, who found that more than 90% of the responding agencies used cost per thousand frequently to price banner ads, whereas about 33% used click-throughs.
Abstract: This study reports findings from a survey of media directors of interactive advertising agencies regarding how they price, evaluate, and pretest banner ads. Results suggest that more than 90% of the responding agencies used cost per thousand frequently to price banner ads, whereas about 33% used click-throughs. In addition, a majority of the agencies used click-throughs and outcomes (e.g., inquires, purchases) rather than exposures to gauge banner advertising effectiveness. Although few agencies pretested their banner ads on a regular basis, most perceived the lack of measurement standards and independent auditing of Web sites as major problems facing Internet banner advertising. Findings from this study should provide benchmarks for future research on the topic and help facilitate the process of developing viable pricing and measurement standards on the Internet.
TL;DR: In this paper, both male and female voices were evaluated in terms of their communication effectiveness in delivering advertising messages and it was hypothesized that the sex of presenters in ads has a significant effect on evaluations of commercials for gender-imaged products but not for products with no gender image (neutral products).
Abstract: Male and female voices were evaluated in terms of their communication effectiveness in delivering advertising messages. It was hypothesized that the sex of presenters in ads has a significant effect on evaluations of commercials for gender-imaged products but not for products with no gender image (neutral products). As hypothesized, men and women were judged equally effective as presenters for neutral products. For a female-gender-imaged product, the sex of the spokesperson and the announcer significantly affected advertising evaluations. However, results showed that, for a male-gender-imaged product, the sex of the presenters had no impact on evaluations of the commercials. There is only one advertising scenario in which a male voice is preferred as a presenter. Implications of these findings for advertising practice are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors examined advertisements in the context of a real-world campaign setting and utilized advertising buy data for the entire campaign, which allows for the more accurate construction of messages available in the information environment over time.
Abstract: This study investigates the “dual effects” of negative political information. Research in negative political advertising indicates that negative ads can have intended effects, harming the target of such attacks, or they can boomerang, thereby harming the sponsor (or the opponent of the target) of such advertising. These investigations have commonly been undertaken in an experimental or quasi-experimental setting, exposing subjects to a few isolated advertisements. This study examines advertisements in the context of a real-world campaign setting and utilizes advertising buy data for the entire campaign, which allows for the more accurate construction of messages available in the information environment over time. Advertising messages sponsored by candidates and parties are then analyzed to determine their relationship to a relatively dramatic shift in Republican candidate Rudy Boschwitz's favorability with the public. Findings indicate that, in addition to the intended impact of Paul Wellstone an...
TL;DR: Stern et al. as discussed by the authors presented a communication model and nominal definition of advertising images on the Internet, here called the netvertising image, which facilitate the construction of a formal language system for theory development and hypothesis testing specific to images in the multimedia context.
Abstract: This paper presents a communication model and nominal definition of advertising images on the Internet, here called the netvertising image (Stern 2001). The model and attribute-based definition facilitate the construction of a formal language system for theory development and hypothesis testing specific to images in the multimedia context. The necessity for so doing is that netvertising has inherited a legacy of fuzzy meanings from marketing, advertising, and consumer behavior research, in which “image” is used variously across the domains of media, message, mental responses, and marketplace behavior. Transformation from this ordinary but ambiguous language system to a formal scientific one proceeds through building a model, sourcing the roots of ordinary meanings, recasting them as attributes, and setting forth a nominal definition. The paper ends with suggestions for future research.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a framework that on-line retailers can use to find appropriate affiliates based on two assumptions: first, they assume that hosts that carry products related to those of the sponsor will be good affiliates and second, the relationships between products are reflected in how consumers search for information.
Abstract: In affiliate advertising, an on-line retailer places a link for its business at a host business's site. The host earns a commission whenever a visitor clicks the link and consummates a transaction with the sponsor. We offer a framework that on-line retailers can use to find appropriate affiliates. Our approach is based on two assumptions. First, we assume that hosts that carry products related to those of the sponsor will be good affiliates. Second, we assume that the relationships between products are reflected in how consumers search for information. Our model uncovers relationships between products on the basis of these two assumptions and thereby identifies potential affiliates.
TL;DR: The authors conducted a causal exploration of advertising effects for a series of ads aired during early October 2000 and found that emotional responses to ads were strong predictors of posttest candidate image evaluations.
Abstract: The Virginia Senate campaign between incumbent Democratic Senator Chuck Robb and Republican challenger George Allen was widely touted as one of the most crucial elections in the battle for the Senate. This study presents a pretest / posttest causal exploration of advertising effects for a series of ads aired during early October 2000. Political image evaluations, emotion, and cynicism were linked in effects for the 93 research participants. Findings reveal that emotional responses to ads were strong predictors of posttest candidate image evaluations. Furthermore, participant responses indicate that ads eliciting fearful emotions are significant predictors of overall cynicism. Moment-by-moment responses to the ads show that respondents' evaluation of the ads was strongly associated with the valence of the message strategy and the emotional content occurring at the various points in the ad.
TL;DR: A priori lists of influential books and articles were used in a survey of U.S. advertising educators and academic researchers as mentioned in this paper, revealing a core of research-based and practice-oriented contributions of widely recognized importance and influence.
Abstract: Prior research on advertising literature consists primarily of studies of journal article authorship and author productivity, journal content and quality, and citation patterns. Absent from this stream of research is direct evidence of the influence of individual authors and their works in the form of peer evaluation and readership. For this study, a priori lists of influential books and articles were used in a survey of U.S. advertising educators and academic researchers. The results reveal a core of research-based and practice-oriented contributions of widely recognized importance and influence. The findings also provide (1) valuable lists of readings for current and future students and educators; (2) direct evidence of the quality of individual literary contributions; and (3) useful insights into the theoretical, intellectual, and practical foundations of the field.
TL;DR: Advertising: The Business of Brands as discussed by the authors is a non-genre text, to borrow a term from film criticism, written in a linear, narrative style by the same author or set of authors; and are hardbound books of up to 26 chapters in length.
Abstract: Advertising: The Business of Brands is a “non-genre” text, to borrow a term from film criticism. Genre films, such as Westerns or romantic comedies, follow certain formulas and have recognizable forms (Kaminsky 1991). Similarly, advertising principles texts used in introductory courses are part of a genre that, until now, has included certain recognizable and expected forms. The genre of ad principles texts carries certain expectations about scope, writing style, and layout. These texts provide an overview of the field; are written in a linear, narrative style by the same author or set of authors; and are hardbound books of up to 26 chapters in length. The layout incorporates an abundance of colorful ads and a generous amount of white space for visual appeal.