Showing papers in "Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry in 1976"
TL;DR: The main aim of this paper is to examine some of the major implications of this interactive, instructional relationship between the developing child and his elders for the study of skill acquisition and problem solving.
Abstract: THIS PAPER is concerned with the nature of the tutorial process; the means whereby an adult or \"expert\" helps somebody who is less adult or less expert. Though its aim is general, it is expressed in terms of a particular task: a tutor seeks to teach children aged 3, 4 and 5 yr to build a particular three-dimensional structure that requires a degree of skill that is initially beyond them. It is the usual type of tutoring situation in which one member \"knows the answer\" and the other does not, rather like a \"practical\" in which only the instructor \"knows how\". The changing interaction of tutor and children provide our data. A great deal of early problem solving by the developing child is of this order. Although from the earliest months of life he is a \"natural\" problem solver in his own right (e.g. Bruner, 1973) it is often the ease that his efforts are assisted and fostered by others who are more skilful than he is (Kaye, 1970). Whether he is learning the procedures that constitute the skills of attending, communicating, manipulating objects, locomoting, or, indeed, a more effective problem solving procedure itself, there are usually others in attendance who help him on his way. Tutorial interactions are, in short, a crucial feature of infancy and childhood. Our species, moreover, appears to be the only one in which any \"intentional\" tutoring goes on (Bruner, 1972; Hinde, 1971). For although it is true that many of the higher primate species learn by observation of their elders (Hamburg, 1968; van Lawick-Goodall, 1968), there is no evidence that those elders do anything to instruct their charges in the performance of the skill in question. What distinguishes man as a species is not only his capacity for learning, but for teaching as well. It is the main aim of this paper to examine some of the major implications of this interactive, instructional relationship between the developing child and his elders for the study of skill acquisition and problem solving. The acquisition of skill in the human child can be fruitfully conceived as a hierarchical program in which component skills are combined into \"higher skills\" by appropriate orchestration to meet new, more complex task requirements (Bruner, 1973). The process is analogous to problem solving in which mastery of \"lower order\" or constituent problems in a sine qua non for success with a larger jjroblcm, each level influencing the other—as with reading where the deciphering of words makes possible the deciphering of sentences, and sentences then aid in the deciphering of particular words (F. Smith, 1971). Given persistent intention in the young learner, given a \"lexicon\" of constituent skills, the crucial task is often one of com-
7,915 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that parent child alienation is not a common feature unless the adolescents are already showing psychiatric problems, and Inner turmoil, however, as represented by feelings of misery and self-depreciation is quite frequent.
Abstract: Summary The concept of adolescent turmoil is considered in the context of findings from a total population epidemiological study of Isle of Wight 14–15-yr-olds. It is concluded that parent child alienation is not a common feature unless the adolescents are already showing psychiatric problems. Inner turmoil, however, as represented by feelings of misery and self-depreciation is quite frequent. Psychiatric, conditions are only slightly commoner during adolescence than in middle childhood but the pattern of disorders changes in terms of an increase in depression and school refusal. Many adolescent psychiatric problems arise in early childhood but conditions arising for the first time during adolescence differ in important respect from those with an earlier onset.
630 citations
TL;DR: The nature of inter-individual relationships, how they can be described, and the nature of their stability are discussed briefly.
Abstract: Summary (1) The study of inter-individual relationships requires a descriptive basis. Description, however, must be guided with respect to the ultimate goals of the investigator-understanding the dynamics of relationships, prognosis, specification of necessary conditions, etc.(2) The nature of inter-individual relationships, how they can be described, and the nature of their stability, are discussed briefly.(3) The following aspects of relationships are discussed: (i) Content of the component interactions; (ii) Diversity of interactions; (iii) Reciprocity vs Complementarity: Control and Power; (iv) Qualities of component interactions; (v) Relative frequency and patterning of interactions; (vi) Multidimensional qualities; (vii) Cognitive and moral levels: Levels of perspective; (viii) Penetration.
259 citations
TL;DR: Analysis of interview content revealed decreases with grade level in the frequency of occurrence of fears with imaginary themes such as fear of ghosts and monsters, of bedtime fears and of frightening dreams, and an increase in thefrequency of realistic fears involving bodily injury and physical danger.
Abstract: Summary A total of 54 kindergarten, second and sixth grade children expressed their fears verbally while representing them iconically in drawings during individual interviews conducted in an investigation designed to describe developmental changes in the structure of fears. Analysis of interview content revealed decreases with grade level in the frequency of occurrence of fears with imaginary themes such as fear of ghosts and monsters, of bedtime fears and of frightening dreams, and an increase in the frequency of realistic fears involving bodily injury and physical danger. Results are discussed in terms of stages in the development of children's perception of reality, socialization processes and emergence of children's conceptions of death.
232 citations
109 citations
85 citations
TL;DR: Ethological observations weir made of 34 boys in a secondary school playground, covering all aspects of behaviour, including fighting, suggested that this intermingling of rough play and aggression in older boys exposes aggression to social influences which in younger boys are confined to rough play.
Abstract: Summary Ethological observations weir made of 34 boys in a secondary school playground, covering all aspects of behaviour, including fighting Factor analyses were performed on individual samples of behaviour; the two main types of righting were vigorous fighting, usually playful but often causing distress to the victim and playful fighting of low intensity Fighting of the first type is rare in young boys, and it is suggested that this intermingling of rough play and aggression in older boys exposes aggression to social influences which in younger boys are confined to rough play
79 citations
TL;DR: Most of the play measures were found to be age-related; the major sex differences in play were in the choice of play material and fantasy theme.
Abstract: SUMMARY
The free play of 109 children aged 3–4 was observed in 12 pre-school centres, and assessed mi a number of scales. Most of the play measures were found to be age-related; the major sex differences in play were in the choice of play material and fantasy theme. There were correlations between some of the play measures and the children's unstandardised verbal and non-verbal test scores. The findings are discussed in relation to pre-school educational practice.
78 citations
TL;DR: The free play of 109 children aged 3–1 was observed in 12 pre-school centres and assessed according to a number of measures, in relation to the social class of the children and the educational orientation of the centre, both effects were high significant.
Abstract: SUMMARY
The free play of 109 children aged 3–1 was observed in 12 pre-school centres and assessed according to a number of measures, in relation to the social class of the children and the educational orientation of the centre, Both effects were high significant. The findings are discussed in relation to pre-School educational practice.
54 citations
TL;DR: Progress over three further years is described, and the boys are sociable, happy and have firm emotional bonds with their foster-family; they attend a school for normal children, with good results.
Abstract: Summary A previous (1972) report on the good development of twins after severe and prolonged deprivation is followed up, and progress over three further years is described. Intelligence is now average. No psychopathological features or eccentricities, either in behaviour or social relations, can be identified. The boys are sociable, happy and have firm emotional bonds with their foster-family; they attend a school for normal children, with good results. A case of a 10-yr-old girl with a similar background now living in the same foster-family is also described.
The psychological diagnosis of severe deprivation and its remediation arc also discussed.
52 citations
TL;DR: There was high inter-rater reliability and the measures used to quantify the play showed an expected positive correlation with Developmental Age, but the measures were sensitive to changes in the play brought about by different play materials and experimenter modelled doll play.
Abstract: Summary A methodology for recording and quantifying children's imaginative doll play was evaluated with a group of 10 normal children, aged 18–42 months and a group of 9 ESNS children, aged 57–103 months. With both groups there was high inter-rater reliability and the measures used to quantify the play showed an expected positive correlation with Developmental Age. Furthermore the measures were sensitive to changes in the play brought about by different play materials and experimenter modelled doll play.
TL;DR: Staff were observed in pre-school centres with three different kinds of educational orientation, traditional free-play nursery schools, nursery schools which used a language teaching session and nurseries run on free- play lines but not staffed by teachers.
Abstract: Summary Staff were observed in pre-school centres with three different kinds of educational orientation, traditional free-play nursery schools, nursery schools which used a language teaching session and nurseries run on free-play lines but not staffed by teachers. Half of the centres selected contained predominantly working-class children, half predominantly middle-class. Significantly more “cognitive” staff behaviour was observed in middle-class than working-class centres, and the amount of “cognitive” staff behaviour was also significantly influenced by the educational orientation of the centre. The working-class children in schools with a language programme had significantly higher language test scares than other working-class children.
TL;DR: Eight pairs of six to fourteen year old children, one member obese and one nonobese (matched on age group, sex, and number of children eating together), were observed unobtrusively as they ate lunch in a school cafeteria.
Abstract: Summary Eight pairs of six to fourteen year old children, one member obese and one nonobese (matched on age group, sex, and number of children eating together), were observed unobtrusively as they ate lunch in a school cafeteria. A pattern of eating found in obese adults (faster rate of biting, less chewing, and more extraneous responses during eating) was found in similar form in these mildly obese children. The results were discussed in terms of early onset of behaviour patterns relevant for the prevention and treatment of obesity.
TL;DR: The results suggest that 1-yr-olds can profit from regular contact with a consistent group of children and indicate the promise of using the methods developed in additional studies.
Abstract: SUMMARY
This study aims at documenting the presence of clustering in a playgroup of five 1-yr-old boys. Clusters are of interest because they bring very young children in repeated contact. In addition, a method is developed for analyzing socially-directed behavior in early peer contacts. When the method is applied to the sample of cluster contacts, it is found that both the frequency and complexity of socially-directed behavior increase across the three-mouth period studied. The results suggest that 1-yr-olds can profit from regular contact with a consistent group of children. They also indicate the promise of using the methods developed in additional studies.
TL;DR: A reciprocal interaction system prevailed in the area of speech and compliance: more speech and more compliance by better educated parents was reflected in more Speech and compliance by their children.
Abstract: SUMMARY
One hundred and thirty-six 2-yr old male twins and singletons and their parents were observed in the home. The incidence and distribution of certain types of interactive behavior by child, mother and father arc reported, based on behavior counts. Mother was the main focus of the child's attachment behavior and was also more involved in disciplinary control. The data were broken clown by Mother's education. Better educated parents used prohibitions slightly less and reasoning more than other parents. A reciprocal interaction system prevailed in the area of speech and compliance: more speech and more compliance by better educated parents was reflected in more speech and compliance by their children.
TL;DR: Evaluated evaluations of the effectiveness of individual child psychotherapy require follow-up assessments, and increases in outcome status from the end of therapy to following-up are found frequently in treated groups of children.
Abstract: SUMMARY
Outcome studies of individual child psychotherapy providing comparable assessments at the close of therapy and at follow-up are reviewed and examined. Increases in outcome status from the end of therapy to follow-up are found frequently in treated groups of children. Follow-up increments appear to be most common when psychotherapy sessions number 30 or more. Methodological strengths and weaknesses of the studies are discussed and the substantive, theoretical, and methodological implications of the findings explored. The strongest implication of the review is that evaluations of the effectiveness of individual child psychotherapy require follow-up assessments.
TL;DR: It was found that the children were aware of ethnic differences but that the extent and direction of their expressed ethnic preferences were strongly influenced by that situational contest and by the competing variables upon which their choices of figures could alternatively be based.
Abstract: SUMMARY
Forty-four children–white and black, boys and girls–from the top classes of a London multi-racial infants’school were given several tests designed to reveal racial awareness and racial preferences. Ii was Found that the children were aware of ethnic differences but that the extent and direction of their expressed ethnic preferences were strongly influenced by that situational contest and by the competing variables upon which their choices of figures could alternatively be based.
TL;DR: Five-yr-old children were found to “like” most those pictures which they looked at most while this association was considerably weaker in 7-yr's while the interpretation of the results illustrated the interdependence of the developmental processes of attention, preference and semantics.
Abstract: Summary Five-yr-old children were found to “like” most those pictures which they looked at most while this association was considerably weaker in 7-yr-olds. Both groups of children looked longer at meaningful stimuli, whether Nice or Nasty, than at abstract designs, and the preferences of the younger children followed this trend whereas the preferences of the older children were in the order Nice > Neutral > Nasty. The interpretation of the results illustrated the interdependence of the developmental processes of attention, preference and semantics.
TL;DR: The failure of the six-month-old infants to learn a non-social response under contingent social feedback is discussed in the context of differential preparedness to appreciate contingency relations within these paradigms.
Abstract: Summary The acquisition of a manipulative response was examined in six- and nine-month-old infants under contingent and non-contingent maternal social stimulation. Reliable response acquisition was observed for the nine-month-old infants under contingent feedback, but not in the case of the six-month-old infants whose performance was not reliably different from non-contingent controls. A distinction is drawn between social learning paradigms which involve the social reinforcement of social responses and those which involve the social reinforcement of non-social responses. The failure of the six-month-old infants to learn a non-social response under contingent social feedback is discussed in the context of differential preparedness to appreciate contingency relations within these paradigms.
TL;DR: A study of 48 preschool children indicates that such children understand the questions used in reality testing, so that an investigational technique using the defined qualities can provide a simple, direct, and reasonably reliable evaluation of reality testing.
Abstract: SUMMARY
Seven reality qualities, representing different aspects of experienced reality, are defined. Examples are given of questions which arc useful in evaluation of these qualities connected to everyday experiences, such as sensory perceptions, thoughts of imaginary items, and thoughts of real objects or real abilities in others or in oneself. A study of 48 preschool children indicates that such children understand the questions used, so that an investigational technique using the defined qualities can provide a simple, direct, and reasonably reliable evaluation of reality testing, Some marked differences are found in reality testing between non-psychotic adults and 3-yr-old normal children.
TL;DR: Ego level was found to be continuous from the waking measure (SCT) into dreams, and to be of a comparable absolute level in the two conditions.
Abstract: Summary Twelve male and eight female children, median age 12 yr, 7 months, slept in the laboratory on nine non-consecutive nights over a year's time. Stage REM dreams were collected. Ss were also administered a personality measure (CPQ), an intelligence test (WISC), and an instrument to assess ego level (SCT). The study was designed to examine: (a) the relationship between waking ego level and ego level assessed in stage-REM dreams: (b) male and female dream representations of Bakan's (1966) dimensions of agency and communion; and (c) sex-role differences on the CPQ in relation to agency-communion in dreams. Ego level was found to be continuous from the waking measure (SCT) into dreams, and to be of a comparable absolute level in the two conditions. Male Ss'dreams were rated primarily agentic, whereas females'dreams were primarily communal. Failure of CPQ scales to show strong gender differences made it difficult to test the proposition that waking sex-role differences would be stronger determinants of dream agency-communion than gender itself.
TL;DR: Small groups of nursery school children were videotaped listening to a story during the course of which they were exposed to the sound of a loud horn hidden from view, hypothesised that this would elicit eyebrow-raising but this was not confirmed and a number of children displayed an eye widening response.
Abstract: Summary Small groups of nursery school children were videotaped listening to a story during the course of which they were exposed to the sound of a loud horn hidden from view. It was hypothesised that this would elicit eyebrow-raising but this was not confirmed. However, a number of children displayed an eye widening response. The results are interpreted in terms of previous research and theory regarding the function of brow-raising/eye widening in terms of searching behaviour.
TL;DR: In this paper, a broadly based approach to the various theoretical models of delinquent subcultures is essential as no single model explains the wide variety of delinquent groupings which can exist in a large urban area.
Abstract: SUMMARY
This research report is concerned with the organization of delinquent gangs, the stains of individuals within the gang, junior groups associated with the dominant gang and the activities of the members themselves. It suggests that a broadly based approach to the various theoretical models of delinquent subcultures is essential as no single model explains the wide variety of delinquent groupings which can exist in a large urban area.