Showing papers in "Kuram Ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri in 2016"

Using Horn's Parallel Analysis Method in Exploratory Factor Analysis for Determining the Number of Factors

Abstract: Psychological characteristics are of an abstract or latent nature rather than a tangible, observable one and they are called constructs or factors (Kline, 2005; Nunnaly & Bernstein, 1994). Constructs are hypothetical concepts and the existence of certain constructs is never absolutely confirmed. Therefore, observations of individual behavior mostly provide conclusions about psychological constructs. These psychological constructs such as intelligence, creativity, extrovertedness and introvertedness are not directly observable (Croker & Algina, 1986). Cronbach and Meehl (1955) define psychological construct as "some postulated attribute of people" (as cited in Baykul, 2000). All constructs have two main features: 1. Every construct is an abstract summary of natural order; 2. Constructs are associated with observable entities or phenomena (Murphy & Davidshofer, 2001).According to Lord and Novick (1968), constructs that are not directly observable can be defined in two different ways: operational definition, which is essential to measure those constructs; and the theoretical relationship between a given construct and others and the relationship between a given construct and criteria in the outer world in addition to the operational definitions (Crocker & Algina, 1986). Operational definitions of constructs could relate to construct validity studies that discuss the development of a suitable measuring instrument for a construct and to what extent the instrument measures the related construct.Construct validity is based on the analysis of the relationships between responses to test items. To some extent, the process of establishing construct validity for a given test is the development of a scientific theory (Tekin, 2000). Construct validity is associated with the validity of implications about non-observable variables through observable variables. Construct validity shows how accurately a measuring instrument measures abstract psychological characteristics. Measuring the related abstract construct is based on transformation of the construct into a tangible, observable entity through observable behaviors. The transformation process into an observable construct includes the following stages: determining behaviors related to the measured construct, revealing constructs that are relevant or irrelevant to the measured construct and showing behavioral patterns that express others related to the measured construct (Murphy & Davidshofer, 2001).Construct validity studies could be conducted with different methods according to the quality and the form of a given construct and those of the measuring instrument used to measure the related construct, whether there are theories and scientific research on the construct and some other features (Erkus, 2003). Factor analysis is the most widely used method among these. In the literature, there is scientific consensus on the fact that factor analysis is a common statistical method used to determine construct validity (Anastasi, 1986; Atilgan, Kan, & Dogan, 2006; Crocer & Algina, 1986; Cronbach, 1990; Dancey & Reidy, 2004; Erkus, 2003; Pedhazur & Pedhazur, Schmelkin, 1991; Urbina, 2004). Because of the advantage entailed by internal dependencies in constructs by nature, factor analysis reduces the complexity of data and thus provides nearly the same amount of information as extensive data obtained by a number of original observations, with only a few factors (Cokluk, Sekercioglu, & Buyukozturk, 2010).According to Floyd and Widaman (1995), factor analysis has two approaches in the evaluation of psychological constructs: exploration and variable reduction. The exploratory aim of factor analysis defines lower dimensions of measuring instruments that represent a given construct, on the basis of the theoretical structure from which the instruments have been developed. Accordingly, the analysis focuses on the exploration of latent variables that form the basis of a scale. …

Coping Styles, Social Support, Relational Self- Construal, and Resilience in Predicting Students' Adjustment to University Life

Abstract: According to data from the Assessment Selection and Placement Center, each year approximately two million students take tests in order to gain admission into universities. From among these students, almost one million are placed in either twoor four-year majors in Turkey (Ogrenci Secme ve Yerlestirme Merkezi [OSYM], 2015). Being away from the families for what is most likely the first time, students must deal with many issues and challenges during this period. During this process, freshmen face many new challenges, such as learning how to be an autonomous adult, adjusting in an environment considerably different from that which they had experienced in high school, standing on their own two feet, managing their finances, and taking care of a variety of their own basic needs (washing clothes, ironing, cooking, etc.) that their parents used to, not to mention adjusting to the university and its culture (R. W. Baker, McNeil, & Siryk, 1985; Fassig, 2003). In addition, when students are faced with intense academic study (S. R. Baker, 2004) and the process of building new friendships (Salami, 2011) at the same time, university life may become even more complicated for students.Research on university students emphasizes that a number of undesired outcomes, such as homesickness, anxiety, depression, over emotionality, failure, and dropout, may occur as a result of the stress felt by university students (Banyard & Cantor, 2004; Bulbul, 2012; Dyson & Renk, 2006; Simsek, 2013; Thurber & Walton, 2012). Therefore, students experiencing personal, emotional, social, and academic problems during the university adjustment process is mentioned (Aladag, Kagnici, Tuna, & Tezer, 2003).Since it requires one to transition from a familiar environment to another one that is not only physically, but also socially new, university life includes many stress causing agents (Lazarus & Cohen, 1977). Recent research indicates that at-risk students, such as freshmen, those with low SES, and students with disabilities, have higher stress and anxiety levels than their peers (Allison, 2015). In this regard, many researchers have stated that coping styles play a significant role in students' ability to manage stress (Aldwin, 2004; Cross, 1995). Studies on freshmen in particular (Dyson & Renk, 2006; Gardner, Krageloh, & Henning, 2014; Herman & Tetrick, 2009; Yalim, 2007; Yiqun, Yueqin, & Yiwen, 2010) have indicated that while some coping styles positively contributed to university adjustment, others just rendered the process more difficult. For instance, Brissette, Scheier, and Carver (2002) found that students' ability to adjust to their university increased as positive reinterpretation, a coping style, increased. In an experimental study (Baqutayan & Mai, 2012) conducted with freshmen in Malaysia, students in the experimental group were only taught how to cope with academic stress. Results showed that students in the experimental group better coped with academic stress than did those in the control group.University students need a wider variety of social support sources to cope with the stress causing agents that they face during their first year of university. Relevant research emphasizes that social support is among the important factors contributing to university students exhibiting positive behaviors toward university adjustment (Anschuetz, 2005; Chao, 2012; Crockett et al., 2007; Salami, 2011). In the literature, sources of social support fall mostly into three categories: family, friends, and significant other (Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988). It is stated that these people (mother, father, spouse, lover, friends, family, teachers, relatives, neighbors, and experts) are the sources that an individual turns to when s/he experiences problems or stress (Zimet et al., 1988). Again, it is stated in the literature that the social support provided in these sources are classified as emotional, instrumental, informational, and overall support (S. …

School Belonging of Adolescents: The Role of Teacher-Student Relationships, Peer Relationships and Family Involvement *

Abstract: The sense of school belonging has received growing attention from researchers of adolescent social and academic development In the last decade, international adolescent and school journals have published an increasing number of studies that have documented significant associations between the sense of belonging in a variety of social contexts and an array of indicators of adolescent development (Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012) However, Booker (2004, p 1) has pointed out that "there is much that we know about school belonging, but even more that we stand to learn"In an effort to understand the consequences of a presence or absence of school belonging, the field of education has examined various factors that can influence student behavior and performance in various student groups (Chapman, Buckely, Sheehan, & Shochef, 2013; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Johnson, 2009; Osterman, 2000; Waters, Cross, & Shaw, 2010) In these studies, schools, teachers, peers, families, and communities have been used as key social domains in which to examine school belonging; however they have rarely been studied together Research also revealed that the sense of belonging is attained through mutually beneficial social relationships between a student and his/her peers and teachers (Finn, 1989; Meloro, 2005) Within this perspective, it is believed that the focus is not simply on one particular relationship, but on a minimum quantity of lasting and positive interpersonal relationships, by emphasizing "the need for belonging" as a fundamental human motivation (Meloro, 2005; Schlanger, 1998) Specifically in a school setting, students, teachers, parents, and peers constitute the most important determinants of a student's education, and all these have some effect on an adolescent's feelings toward school and to some extent determine their social and academic competence at school (Osterman, 2000; Wentzel et al, 2010; Voelkl, 1997)Life at school might be described as complex and multi-faceted There are many different domains involved in school, including classroom social and learning dynamics In the school community, classrooms are seen as social contexts in which various interactions occur amongst adolescents Adolescent interactions with teachers and peers in these social contexts impact their sense of school belonging, as well as their social and emotional adjustment, engagement, academic motivation, and learning (Corso, Bundick, Quaglia, & Haywood, 2013; Wentzel, 1999) Moreover, positive and supportive relationships with teachers and peers promote an adolescents' sense of school belonging, which engender the will to participate cooperatively in classroom and school activities Beyond teachers and peers, families provide the main source of socialization for adolescents attending school Also family involvement and attitudes toward school have a positive effect on a student's sense of school belonging Research has shown that family involvement facilitates a student's identification with their schools and teachers, and these students are more likely to report the perception of being accepted and supported by the school community (Clark, 1983; Jose et al, 2012; Law, Cuskelly, & Carroll, 2013; Osterman, 2000; Wickery, 2010)In the relevant literature, research has shown that there are gender differences when it comes to a student's sense of belonging It has been found that girls have greater sense of belonging than boys, and that the relationship between expectancies for success and sense of belonging are stronger for girls than they are for boys (Goodenow, 1993; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Sanchez, Colon, & Esparza, 2005) These gender differences were explained in relation to the varying socialization processes for girls versus those for boys (Goodenow, 1993) Given that a sense of belonging is important for adolescent wellbeing, research has shown that adolescent girls give more importance to group membership, as well as relatedness and connectedness to others, while competition and autonomy are more important for boys (Newman, Newman, Griffen, O'Connor, & Spas, 2007; Sanchez et al …

The Effects of Test Length and Sample Size on Item Parameters in Item Response Theory

Abstract: * This paper is a part of the first author’s PhD dissertation at the department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, Institute of Social Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 77th Annual meeting of National Council on Measurement in Education, Chicago, April 15-19, 2015. 1 Correspondence to: Alper Şahin (PhD), Modern Languages Program, School of Foreign Languages, Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus, Kalkanlı, Güzelyurt, Mersin 99738 Turkey. Email: alpersahin2@yahoo.com 2 Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, Faculty of Education, Hacettepe University, Ankara Turkey. Email: aduygu@hacettepe.edu.tr Citation: Şahin, A., & Anıl, D. (2017). The effects of test length and sample size on item parameters in item response theory. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 17, 321–335. http://dx.doi.org/10.12738/estp.2017.1.0270 Abstract This study investigates the effects of sample size and test length on item-parameter estimation in test development utilizing three unidimensional dichotomous models of item response theory (IRT). For this purpose, a real language test comprised of 50 items was administered to 6,288 students. Data from this test was used to obtain data sets of three test lengths (10, 20, and 30 items) and nine different sample sizes (150, 250, 350, 500, 750, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000 and 5,000 examinees). These data sets were then used to create various research conditions in which test length, sample size, and IRT model variables were manipulated to investigate item parameter estimation accuracy under different conditions. The results suggest that rather than sample size or test length, the combination of these two variables is important and samples of 150, 250, 350, 500, and 750 examinees can be used to estimate item parameters accurately in three unidimensional dichotomous IRT models, depending on test length and model employed.

Longitudinal Examination of Procrastination and Anxiety, and Their Relation to Self-Efficacy for Self- Regulated Learning: Latent Growth Curve Modeling

Abstract: Life in school and university is burdened with deadlines and seemingly endless amounts of work. Students must cope with stressful timeframes and manage their academic anxiety (Misra & McKean, 2000). Ironically, one of the greatest challenges in the academic realm is not the quantity of assignments but the tendency of students to delay the process of working towards their goals. By this logic, it is not necessarily the difficulty of the work that students struggle with but instead their ability to selfregulate, stay on track, and complete their work. Procrastination has been defined as a failure to self-regulate to achieve intended goals, which results in a time delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination has been seen as a universal phenomenon that hinders people's ability for accomplishing their goals (Steel, 2007). Academic procrastination specifically looks at the delay and postponing of academic tasks (Sirin, 2011). According to Yong (2010), academic procrastination is "an irrational tendency to delay at the beginning or completion of an academic task" (p. 63). Indeed, many students do not have sufficient drive to start their academic work, even when they intend to complete it by the deadline. Academic procrastination has been seen to relate to students missing deadlines, delaying studying, lower grades, and even withdrawing from courses (Beswick, Rothblum, & Mann, 1988). The prevalence rates for academic procrastination at the university level are high, and countering procrastination is considered to be one of the most important factors to student success (Steel, 2007). It is estimated that 80% to 95% of students at the university or college level suffer from academic procrastination (Ellis & Knuas, 1977). Others estimate 30% to 50% of students reporting that they have troubles with primary tasks such as writing a term paper, preparing for exams, and doing weekly readings (Clark & Hill, 1994; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). In a large-scale sample, Steel and Ferrari (2013) found that procrastination was associated with lower education levels, showing the importance of self-regulation skills in achieving higher education goals. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) stated that the primary reasons that college students procrastinate is related to task aversiveness, fear of failure, evaluation anxiety, low self-confidence, perfectionistic standards for success, and difficulty in decision making.The Link between Anxiety and ProcrastinationAnxiety is defined as "an emotion based on the appraisal of threat, an appraisal which entails symbolic, anticipatory, and uncertain elements" (Lazarus & Averill, 1972, p. 487). Anxiety is closely related to a fear of future harm or potential future threats (Reiss, 1991). Prior studies have shown that anxiety can have a debilitating effect on academic performance (Macher, Paechter, Papousek, & Ruggeri, 2012). In an earlier study of anxiety relating to procrastination, Lay (1989) found that state anxiety was associated with perceptions of threat, harm, and emotion-focused coping. It has been found that in graduate students academic procrastination is significantly and positively related to anxiety, with a majority of it related to tasks such as writing, studying, and weekly readings (Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Onwuegbuzie & Jiao, 2000). Rothblum, Solomon, and Murakami (1986) stated that academic procrastination usually included a problematic level of anxiety. Although most studies found positive correlations between academic procrastination and academic anxiety, these studies do not emphasize a causal relationship (Onwuegbuzie, 2000). That is, the cross-sectional correlational analyses from these studies reveal that there is a positive and significant relationship between procrastination and the interpretation of anxiety, including test and class anxiety. Therefore, anxiety and procrastination have-for the most part-been measured at single time points, revealing only these relations within a narrow temporal time point. …

Optimism and Psychological Resilience in Relation to Depressive Symptoms in University Students: Examining the Mediating Role of Self-Esteem

Abstract: The study of depression has been one of the most interesting research topics for many years (e.g., Giltay, Zitman, & Kromhout, 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). Approximately 350 million people suffer from depression world-wide (WHO, 2012). Depression is different from short-term emotional reactions caused by daily hardships and usual mood swings. Specifically, long-term and medium or severe depression may cause serious problems. such as low performance and high levels of suffering at work, school and family (WHO, 2012). Depression is a mental illness often seen specifically in university years (e.g., Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007). University students begin a transition into a life increasingly independent from their families in college and have to deal with difficulties, such as lack of family support, academic success, economic hardships, and coping with new responsibilities. Often, students can exhibit depressive symptoms as a result of these challenges (Beck, Taylor, & Robbins, 2003; Eisenberg, et al., 2007). Such individuals typically have severe feelings of incompetence and low life satisfaction (Fuhrer, Rintala, Hart, Clearman, & Young, 1992). Depressive symptoms may cause negative expectations for the future. However, one of the protective properties from negative future expectations seems to be optimism.OptimismOptimism refers to the general expectancy that one will experience good outcomes in the future (Scheier & Carver, 1985). In the literature optimism is defined by two important components: "learned optimism" (Peterson & Seligman, 1984) and "dispositional optimism" (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Learned optimism is accepted as a personal trait rather than situational explanatory style. According to this theory optimistic individuals use adaptive attributional style in order to explain adverse events. On the other hand, Scheier and Carver (1985) define optimism as a general belief that good things will happen rather than bad things in the future. Thus, optimism, as a personality trait, reflects good expectations for the future.Some authorities divide optimism into two aspects: realistic and unrealistic. According to Schneider (2001), all forms of optimism are not beneficial. Being optimistic is not beneficial when the expectations and goals are unrealistic. In unrealistic optimism, although individuals are aware of their limitations they have high positive expectations for the outcomes. For instance, if they have an expectation that they will get high grades from an exam with the help of God and good luck, although they have not studied or have inadequately studied for an exam. However, in realistic optimism, in order to reach the desired outcomes, studying and hoping are necessary. In other words, when enough effort is put in, it is not just a dream to achieve a desired outcome.Optimistic individuals seem able to solve problems they face more rapidly (Chang & D'Zurilla, 1996). Because optimistic individuals have positive expectations for the future, they experience less anxiety and daily problems (LaMontagne, Hepworth, Salisbury, & Riley, 2003; Trunzo & Pinto, 2003), they experience more positive emotions (Lai et al., 2005) and they have more life satisfaction (Bailey, Eng, Frisch, & Snyder, 2007; Leung, Moneta, & McBride-Chang, 2005). Thus, they suffer less depressive symptoms because they can deal with problems more strongly (Chang, 1998; Puskar et al., 1999). In various studies, optimism has been found to be negatively associated with depressive symptoms (e.g., Cohen, Moor, & Amato, 2001; Steele & Wade 2004). In other words, both optimists and pessimists encounter similar problems in their lives, but optimists seem to overcome these issues more easily; pessimists may simply give up and fall into depression (Seligman, 2007). Therefore, those with high optimism tend to have low levels of depression (Van der Velden et al. …

Pre-Service Teachers' Mind Maps and Opinions on STEM Education Implemented in an Environmental Literacy Course.

Abstract: This study aims to implement a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education approach in an environmental education course. The research involved the design and implementation of STEM activities by researchers, as part of the environmental education course taught in the second year of a Primary School Teaching undergraduate program. In this study—a case study using qualitative research methods—after the implementation of STEM activities, some mind maps and the views of the pre-service teachers regarding STEM education were examined. A total of 42 pre-service teachers participated in the study and an examination of their mind maps showed that they have a rich conceptual structure regarding STEM education and also associate STEM fields both with one another and with environmental education. In the interviews conducted following the activities, the pre-service teachers stated that they found STEM education to be efficient, easy to retain, and fun.

Who Are the Most Disadvantaged? Factors Associated with the Achievement of Students with Low Socio- Economic Backgrounds

Abstract: The achievement gap between distinct groups of students has increasingly been an important subject of focus in the contemporary educational literature, governments' educational policies (irrespective of their development level), and the endeavors of international organizations (such as UNESCO and Word Bank), since education is proven to be a substantial strategy to reduce poverty and enhance individuals' and communities' overall living condition (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Fullan, 2006). A major body of educational policy research examined the achievement gap and found it to be substantial among those who were labeled as low socio-economic status (SES) and minority students (Crane, 1996; Desimone & Long, 2010; Delen & Bellibas, 2015; Flores, 2007; Haycock, 2001; Kober, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Lubienski, 2002). It is consistently found that unlike students with higher socio economic status SES backgrounds, students who suffer from lower SES living conditions are less likely to succeed in elementary and secondary schools and to attend a higher education institution (Daniel, 2009; Gelbal, 2008; Perry & McConney, 2010; Undheim & Nordvik, 1992). The issue is especially critical for successful low SES students. Wyner, Bridgeland, and Dilulio (2007), for instance, reported that high achieving low income students are more likely to fail during their primary and secondary education, and less likely to graduate from college when compared with their high-SES counterparts.Many potential remedies to the problem are discussed in the literature. Some proposed solutions have put considerable pressure on schools. In many studies and articles, the school is considered a useful intervention in addressing the disadvantages associated with low SES backgrounds (e.g., Darling-Hammond, 2000; Haycock, 1998; Ingersoll, 2001; Jesse, Davis, & Pokorny, 2004; Koedel, 2009; Mosteller, 1995; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005; Sanders & Horn, 1998). Educational researchers found that the variation of achievement among students is larger between different schools than the variation within each individual school. This finding reveals the significant contribution of the teacher to student learning outcomes. Further research concluded that the teacher has a greater influence on student learning than any other school-related factors and that good quality teaching matters (Hanushek & Kain, 2005), particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds (Haycock, 2001; Koedel, 2009; Sanders & Horn, 1998). "Ensuring an adequate supply of well-qualified teachers in high-minority schools" is considered to be an effective way to deal with the achievement problem of low-SES students (Kober, 2001). Even though such research emphasizes the importance of effective teachers, measuring teacher effectiveness has been the subject of controversy, and not much has been done to assign teachers who are considered effective to schools with high concentrations of low-SES students. Yet, some other school policies, such as reducing class size, have been implemented and resulted in substantial academic gains for low-SES students (Mosteller, 1995).Besides remedies aimed at improving students' education in schools, researchers have proposed various other policies and strategies for intervention programs to alleviate the detrimental impact of SES on the academic achievement of lower SES students. The list of solutions they produced mostly suggested the importance of early childhood education, parenting, and household issues (Bellibas & Gumus, 2013; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Ingram, Wolfe, & Lieberman, 2007; Lareau, 1987, 2002, 2003; Rothstein, 2004; Scott- Jones, 1987). For instance, Darling-Hammond (2010) reports 2006 PISA results and argues that the U.S has the largest existing achievement gap among students with differing SES, when compared to other developed countries. In addition to assigning high quality teachers to vulnerable environments, Darling-Hammond highlights the importance of the provision of basic life needs for low-income students, as well as the creation of supportive early learning environments. …

The School Absenteeism among High School Students: Contributing Factors *

Abstract: All students, yet for one reason or another, at one time or other time want miss to a day of school. The general tendency to engage in such unwillingness is referred to absenteeism. Student absenteeism is defined by Teasley (2004) as a period of time when a student does not attend school, has become major and continuous problem among high school students in many countries. Indeed, numerous studies conducted to answer a question that is why high school students miss classes. In this notion, Teasley have noted numerous risk factors that contribute to student absenteeism such as family health, low income, poor school climate, drug and alcohol use, transportation problems, and community attitudes towards education. Pehlivan (2006) found that the major reason given by students for non-attendance at lecture or school were bored at school, dislike of school and lessons, encouragement of friends, and lack of expectations about education. Wilkins (2008) has reported four themes, which play important role to motivate students to attend school such as school climate, academic environment, discipline, and relationships with teachers. Ingul, Klockner, Silverman, and Nordahl (2012) found that school absenteeism associated with internalizing and externalizing behavior, family work and health, and school environment. In another study, Henry (2007) has noted that parents' education levels contribute to students' absenteeism. Simons, Hwang, Fitzgerald, Kielb, and Lin (2010) found that there are an association between absenteeism of student and unfavorable school setting conditions. In addition, some researches argued that students' attitude and motivation for learning was a key factor in student absenteeism (Devadoss & Foltz, 1996; Gump, 2006; Gokyer, 2012; Kottasz, 2005; Marburger, 2001; Paisey & Paisey, 2004). For example, Kottasz (2005) found that student with low motivation are absent more than student with high motivation level. Schwartz, Radcliffe, and Barakat (2009) reported that absenteeism negatively related to future-oriented academic goals. Watkins and Watkins (1994) found that student absenteeism was predicted by academic failure, low school effort and previous grades. Another group authors argued that students' attitude towards teacher and school play important role in school absenteeism (Adiguzel & Karadac, 2013; Attwood & Croll, 2006; Gokyer, 2012; Pehlivan, 2006; Veenstra, Lindenberg, Tinga, & Ormel, 2010; Wilkins, 2008). For example, Adiguzel and Karadac (2013) found that student with high level of absenteeism reported negative attitudes towards school. Attwood and Croll (2006) found that students' negative attitude to teachers is related to school absenteeism. As a result, school absenteeism has a complex nature that includes risk factors associated with personal, academic, family, school environment, and social variables.Because of absenteeism has a complex nature, the consequences of high level school absenteeism can be detrimental for students. In the other words, the absenteeism among high school students can lead to more negative effect such as low academic performance and many social problems. In regarding relationship between student absenteeism and academic achievement, Epstein and Sheldon (2002) stated that student with absenteeism miss opportunities to leam the material that enables them to succeed later in school and; fall behind their classmates in academic achievement. In this notion, previous studies has revealed that student absenteeism is related academic failure and academic performance (Adiguzel & Karadac, 2013; Altmkurt, 2008; Gottfried, 2009; Klem & Connell, 2004; Korir, Charo, Ogichi, & Thinguri, 2014; McCluskey, Bynum, & Putchin, 2004; Moonie, Streling, Figgs, & Castro, 2008; Nichols, 2003; Morrissey, Hutchison, & Winsler, 2014; Yakovlev & Kinney, 2008). In addition some authors believed that level of academic achievement lead school absenteeism (Devadoss & Foltz 2001; Watkins & Watkins, 1994; Wayt, 1990). …

Reading Strategy Use and Comprehension Performance of More Successful and Less Successful Readers: A Think-Aloud Study

Abstract: Within the context of language study and teaching, reading is fundamentally important for language learning. Bright and McGregor (1970, p. 52) stated that "Where there is little reading, there will be little language learning." To date, there is a growing body of research that has been conducted on using reading to help second/foreign language (L2/FL) learners develop language proficiency and reading skills (e.g., Kr ashen, 2004; Lao & Krashen, 2000; Yamashita, 2008). Researchers, as well as language instructors, have also become increasingly interested in examining the strategies L2/ FL learners use during reading and the possible effects of strategy-based reading instruction or training on reading development (Aghaie & Zhang, 2012; Anderson, 1991; Janzen, 2003; Kern, 1989; Zhang, 2008; Zhang, Gu, & Hu, 2008). To achieve strategic reading, a reader needs to possess both knowledge about strategies and the ability to apply strategies effectively (Anderson, 1991), which is also one of the notable characteristics that distinguish proficient readers from less proficient readers.Reading StrategiesReading strategies are self-directed actions where readers flexibly take control with a certain degree of awareness to retrieve, store, regulate, elaborate, and evaluate textual information to achieve reading goals (Erler & Finkbeiner, 2007; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1994). Readers' strategy use while reading demonstrates their interaction with written texts, and effective use of strategies can improve their reading efficiency and text comprehension (Carrell, 1989). In terms of strategy categories, Williams and Burden (1997, p. 149) stated that "Strategies can be cognitive; that is, they can involve mental processing or they can be more social in nature, and their effective use is enhanced by metacognitive awareness." Cognitive strategies function for effective and efficient retrieval, storage, and acquisition of information for readers to extract and construct meaning from texts. The literature on both first and second language reading provides a binary division of cognitive strategies as bottom-up and top-down strategies, with the former being related to sound-letter, lexicon, and syntax, and the latter being concerned with text gist, background knowledge, and textual organization (Erler & Finkbeiner, 2007; Paris et al., 1994). Metacognitive strategies that address readers' knowledge of cognitive resources, awareness of cognitive processing, and the ability to adjust utilized strategies (Baker & Brown, 1984; Carrell, Gajdusek, & Wise, 1998) are performed by readers to "check the outcome of any attempt to solve a problem, plan one's next move, monitor the effectiveness of any attempted action, and test, revise, and evaluate one's strategies for learning" (Brown, 1994, p. 115). Social strategies, such as "asking for clarification or verification," "cooperating with peers and proficient users of the new language," "developing cultural understanding," and "becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings," are categorized as one of the six strategy groups in Oxford's (1990, pp. 323-324) system of language learning strategies useful for L2/FL reading to increase readers' social involvement in the target language.Thinking AloudTo best gain access to a reader's sophisticated process of reading comprehension and strategy use, thinking aloud provides a powerful means to obtain this mental data, and verbal protocol analysis can lead to new insights into reading strategies, reader responses and characteristics, as well as the influence of situational variables (Afflerbach, 2000; Smith, 2006). The technique of thinking aloud while reading requires readers to express their thoughts from their short-term memory at specific intervals; this makes covert mental processing overt and provides direct evidence of the internal reading process performed by readers while engaged in the task of reading (Gillam, Fargo, & Robertson, 2009; Kucan & Beck, 1997). …

Examining the Role of Inclusive STEM Schools in the College and Career Readiness of Students in the United States: A Multi-Group Analysis on the Outcome of Student Achievement.

Abstract: Occupations in the 21st century increasingly require science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) knowledge (National Research Council [NRC], 2011). This demand is projected to continue during the next decade. However, the education system in the U.S. has not prepared enough students to fill those occupations requiring STEM knowledge (National Science Foundation [NSF], 2012; U.S. Department of Commerce, 2011). Until recently, U.S. businesses have managed to fill these occupations by importing students from other countries. However, this strategy has become outdated because of increased opportunities for similar occupations in other countries (Atkinson, Hugo, Lundgren, Shapiro, & Thomas, 2007). As a result, the shortage of workers with STEM knowledge has caused stress for U.S. businesses.Policymakers in the U.S., realizing the importance of the situation, have developed new strategies for increasing the number of students to fill occupations requiring STEM knowledge (NRC, 2011). The first of these strategies includes: (a) improving the degree of training for STEM related careers, (b) increasing the number of people for the workforce, and (c) generating a more scientifically literate population (NRC, 2011). With these and other strategies, specific recommendations for increasing students include: (a) the creation of state-level mathematics and science standards, (b) recruitment and training of 100,000 STEM teachers over the next decade, (c) recognition for STEM teachers, (.d) expansion of educational technology, (e) creation of extra-curricular opportunities for students, (f) creation of 1,000 new STEM-focused schools, and (g) provision of strong and strategic leadership (Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and Technology [PCAST], 2010). The PCAST authors identified specialized STEM schools as the most prominent recommendation.In the last decade, most stakeholders (i.e., education leaders, policymakers, and researchers) have agreed that specialized STEM schools provide an optimum way for addressing the issue of reform for STEM education within the U.S. education system (Erdogan & Stuessy, 2015). In describing these schools, the NRC adopted a typology for identifying specialized schools. The NRC (2011) categorized specialized STEM schools under three headings: (a) selective STEM schools, (b) inclusive STEM schools, and (c) schools with STEM-focused career and technical education (CTE). Selective STEM schools serve students with aptitude and interest in STEM knowledge. These schools have certain admission criteria (e.g., past academic achievement; NRC, 2011; Subotnik, Tai, & Almarode, 2011). Inclusive STEM schools serve similar students; however, these schools have no admission criteria (NRC, 2011; Young et al., 2011). Schools with STEM-focused CTE serve students that are at risk for dropping out of school and accept students based on no criteria (NRC, 2011; Stone III, 2011).Based on the above discussion, two problems arise to guide this study. The first problem is the blurred success of these schools at preparing students for college and career in STEM fields. Although a large amount of money has been invested in these schools, the success of these schools in preparing students is an unanswered question. The second problem involves better understanding of how student demographics correspond with student success on different achievement measures. These two problems suggest stakeholders have more to learn about the success of specialized STEM schools and the influence of student demographics over student performance on achievement measures.The purpose of this study is to measure the college readiness of inclusive STEM high school (ISHS) graduates in comparison to traditional high school graduates. Schools classified as ISHS were chosen to represent a new school typology having the potential to direct females, minorities, and students with disabilities into STEM related careers. …

Classroom Management through the Eyes of Elementary Teachers in Turkey: A Phenomenological Study.

Abstract: Since classrooms are complex social and cultural settings with multiple events occurring simultaneously (Poole & Evertson, 2013), classroom management is considered to be key to effective teaching. That is, teaching is a complex endeavor which requires teachers not only be effective in delivering the instruction but also maintaining the order (Rosas & West, 2009). Research has supported the importance of classroom management for effective teaching and studies demonstrate that more effective teachers generally have better organized classrooms and fewer behavior problems (Evertson, 1985, 1989). Effective classroom management has been characterized as the process of establishing, maintaining, and restoring the classroom environment in an effective way for teaching and learning (Brophy, 1986). It refers to all actions taken by the teacher to create an effective classroom atmosphere where students could be highly engaged in lessons (Doyle, 1986; Romi, Lewis, & Roache, 2013). This is, in return, expected to strongly influence the academic achievement of learners (Marzano & Marzano, 2003; Wang, Heartel, & Walberg, 1993) because it is widely documented that the actual time students spend on meaningful tasks is fundamental to their learning gains (Kunter, Baumert, & Koller, 2007). However, classroom management has been ranked as one of the major problems that teachers face (Rosas & West, 2009; Wubbels, 2011) because in regular classrooms, the available time is spent not only on learning activities, but also on non-curricular activities, organizational issues, or disciplinary problems (Kunter et al., 2007). As poor classroom management interferes with teaching and learning practices, it eventually becomes a major cause for teacher stress (Friedman, 2006), teacher burnout and job dissatisfaction (Garrahy, Cothran, & Kulinna, 2005; Ingersoll, 2001) and results in teachers transferring to other schools or leaving the profession (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Rosas & West, 2009). It is also not surprising that classroom management is especially a high priority concern for beginning teachers (Doyle, 1975; Wubbels, 2011) given the strong possibility that failure to master the essential management skills causes discourage and disappointing experiences with students in class (Doyle, 1975).Especially in today's world, the variety of stimuli in learning environments, the reality of social change leading to a diversity in the interests and needs of learners, and the heterogeneity in the background of the students, such as ethnicity, gender, ability, health, nationality, geographic region, social class, and age (Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 2009; Gay & Howard, 2000) exacerbate the fact that classroom management has been a more serious concern for teachers than it has ever been before (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Milner & Tenore, 2010). Considering the fact that goals of education on the part of students have changed dramatically in the current era (Evertson & Neal, 2006) and cognitive theories have been more influential on education, educational settings have stronger orientations towards student-centered learning environments over the past years. As a result, teachers are required to address the needs of their students who demonstrate an increasing demographic variety. Therefore, to maximize students' development by matching the school culture with student characteristics, teachers are expected to practice culturally responsive pedagogy. According to Ladson-Billings (1992), culturally responsive pedagogy is a term which is used to describe the kind of teaching in which student culture is used as the foundation for enabling students to understand themselves and others. This mainly implies that teachers should acknowledge the contexts, be responsive to the needs and interests of students, be responsible for the academic progress of all students, and integrate the elements of students' culture in their teaching. …

Metacognition, Strategies, Achievement, and Demographics: Relationships Across Countries10.12738/estp.2016.5.0137

Abstract: The factors influencing student learning is a shared concern internationally. The role of student demographics, the nature of their schools, and the wealth and inequality of their countries are established factors in academic achievement (Marchant & Finch, 2016). Identifying factors that impede learning is not a difficult task. Factors such as poverty, discrimination, and inequality all undermine efforts to educate children; however, it is more difficult to identify feasible and efficient solutions to improve learning outcomes or overcome disadvantages. Short of one-to-one instruction, the strategies students employ when approaching learning tasks may be one factor that could offset some of the other universal negatives.A large body of research has examined the use of academic strategies, which entail a variety of tactics that may facilitate achievement (Boss & Vaughn, 2002; Ward & Traweek, 1993; Zimmerman, 2002). Although, multiple perspectives are discussed within the literature, and the terminology may differ slightly across these perspectives, some of the most common types of strategies include cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Cantrell et al., 2010; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993). It should be noted that there are differences in the terminology and classification of academic strategies. Many have also classified various academic strategies into two broad categories of learning strategies and metacognitive strategies (PISA, 2009; Woolfolk, 2014). In particular, this perspective is consistent with the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2009) which served as the primary data source for this study. From this perspective, learning strategies may entail both cognitive strategies and control strategies that are used to optimize students' learning of content. Cognitive strategies include a variety of actions but some popular strategies include memorization, elaboration, or summarization (PISA, 2009; Pintrich et al., 1993; Woolfolk, 2014). A common theme among these strategies is that they enhance learning by compensating for limitations on one's cognitive abilities. For example, one may choose to use a memorization strategy, such as rote repetition or creating an acronym, because without the support of such a strategy, the number of pieces of information to be remembered would exceed or strain the learner's memory capacity. Relatedly, another cognitive strategy, elaboration, entails creating connections between prior learning and new information, which supports learning by capitalizing on cognitive predispositions to remember content that is connected to prior knowledge.On the other hand, control strategies have been defined in multiple ways within the literature; however, PISA (2009) describes control strategies as the actions that students take to identify the key purpose of a task or identify the main concepts. From this perspective, control strategies are considered to be within the larger category of learning strategies because the identification of key information should enhance learning (Gardner, Brown, Sanders, & Menke, 1992).In contrast to learning strategies, another class of strategies within the PISA, 2009 measures include metacognitive strategies, which help a learner \"think about his or her thinking\" (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). For example, a metacognitive strategy to check one's understanding of a paragraph immediately after reading the paragraph might increase the reader's awareness that he or she did not understand the text. Similarly, one may summarize a paragraph into their own words to monitor how well they understood the text. A primary benefit of metacognitive strategies is that increased awareness, especially when a learner is struggling, provides an opportunity for the learner to take actions, such as utilizing learning strategies, to improve learning.Learning Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, and AchievementResearch has been relatively consistent in showing that metacognitive strategies are related to achievement and learning across many content areas, but especially reading, mathematics, and science. …

Serial Multiple Mediation of General Belongingness and Life Satisfaction in the Relationship between Attachment and Loneliness in Adolescents.

Abstract: Attachment is defined as the emotional bond a person builds with someone significant in their lives (Ainsworth, 1969, p. 2; Becker-Weidman & Shell, 2010, p. 1; Bridges, 2003, p. 177). During infancy and childhood, bonds are established with parents (or caregivers) who are looked to for protection, comfort, and help. These bonds are sustained throughout the adolescence and adulthood, but are commonly completed through new bonds with people of the opposite sex (Bowlby, 2012, p. 213). One of these bonds shows up in peer attachment. According to Hazan and Shaver (1994, p. 8), if peers perform the same priority functions as one's parents did during infancy and childhood, and if peers satisfy the individual's same needs for support and safety as their parents did, then after a while, the bond of attachment is expected to be transferred from parents to peers. Ainsworth (1969, p. 2; Bowlby, 2012a, p. 135), on the other hand, emphasized that the attachment builds later, whether to parents or peers, and tends to be sustained; this attachment is not a term that implies a temporary relationship or emotional bond. Namely, an attachment figure and the need for a secure personal base are not limited to children. This need is crucial for adolescents and adults (Bowlby, 2012a, p. 134-135). In this respect, Ainsworth (1969, p. 2) stated that attachment may occur at any age and does not refer to immaturity or helplessness. Similarly, Bowlby (1979, p. 129; 2012, p. 166; 2012b, p. 107) emphasized that any formed attachment tends to sustain, and the attachment is a life-long phenomenon lasting from the cradle to the grave. Thus, attachment begun in infancy was determined to last until young adulthood in a longitudinal study by Waters, Hamilton, and Weinfield (2000). In Fraley's (2002) meta-analysis of the results of longitudinal studies on whether attachment lasts from infancy to adulthood, attachment was found to last until adulthood at a stable medium-level.Bowlby (2012b, p. 14) emphasized that mother-child attachment brings along very powerful affects or emotions like happiness and sadness. Bailham and Harper (2004, p. 49) stated that the interactions between children and their primary caregiver in the first two years of life provide the building blocks for children's relationships. The quality of this relationship in early childhood significantly influences a child's physical, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and social development. According to Shaver and Mikulincer (2007, p. 652), children being protected and supported in an attachment relationship helps them function better in non-attachment domains, such as exploration, creative thinking, being empathic towards others, and having prosocial behaviors. Bowlby (2012, p. 158-213) emphasized that the capacity to build relationships with others is considered a basic characteristic of effective personality functions and mental health, and that attachment relationships serve a key role for individual survival. Today, there is sound and impressive evidence that the attachment style an individual develops during infancy, childhood, and adulthood is seriously influenced by the parents' (or caregivers') behavior patterns towards the individual (Bowlby, 2012, p. 162). Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) "Strange Situation" procedure is an example of this (as cited in Bowlby, 2012, p. 218). During this process, children were observed while briefly separated and reunited with their caregivers. In their research, Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) defined three styles of attachment: secure, anxious-resistant, and avoidant. Main and Solomon (as cited in Shorey, 2009, p. 65) later contributed the fourth style: disorganized (Bowlby, 2012, p. 218-219; Shorey, 2009, p. 65). The first is the secure style of attachment. Children develop secure attachments who find themselves in a relationship with their parents that adequately provide sensitive, loving, harmonious, consistent, proper, and accepting care (Howe, 2005, p. …

Effectiveness of Video Modeling Provided by Mothers in Teaching Play Skills to Children with Autism

Abstract: Video modeling is an evidence-based practice that can be used to provide instruction to individuals with autism. Studies show that this instructional practice is effective in teaching many types of skills such as selfhelp skills, social skills, and academic skills. However, in previous studies, videos used in the video modeling process were prepared and implemented by researchers and teachers. However, it is important to train family members on how to prepare video recordings and how to implement video modeling with treatment integrity. This study examines whether mothers of children with autism can learn to prepare video recordings and implement video modeling with treatment integrity, and whether such video modeling is effective in teaching a play skill to the children. The play skill to be taught was building a model train using Lego bricks. The study was conducted with the participation of three boys with autism, ages 4–6 years, and their mothers, and a multiple probe design across participants was used. Results of the study showed that mothers were able to implement video modeling with high treatment integrity. All the children who participated in the study were able to learn the target skill, maintain their learning, and generalize to non-teaching conditions. Results also showed that the intervention had an acceptable level of social validity.

Using Neural Network and Logistic Regression Analysis to Predict Prospective Mathematics Teachers' Academic Success upon Entering Graduate Education

Abstract: The ability to predict the success of students when they enter a graduate program is critical for educational institutions because it allows them to develop strategic programs that will help improve students’ performances during their stay at an institution. In this study, we present the results of an experimental comparison study of Logistic Regression Analysis (LRA) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for predicting prospective mathematics teachers’ academic success when they enter graduate education. A sample of 372 student profiles was used to train and test our model. The strength of the model can be measured through Logistic Regression Analysis (LRA). The average correct success rate of students for ANN was higher than LRA. The successful prediction rate of the back-propagation neural network (BPNN, or a common type of ANN was 93.02%, while the success of prediction of LRA was 90.75%.

Metacognition, Strategies, Achievement, and Demographics: Relationships across Countries

Abstract: The factors influencing student learning is a shared concern internationally. The role of student demographics, the nature of their schools, and the wealth and inequality of their countries are established factors in academic achievement (Marchant & Finch, 2016). Identifying factors that impede learning is not a difficult task. Factors such as poverty, discrimination, and inequality all undermine efforts to educate children; however, it is more difficult to identify feasible and efficient solutions to improve learning outcomes or overcome disadvantages. Short of one-to-one instruction, the strategies students employ when approaching learning tasks may be one factor that could offset some of the other universal negatives.A large body of research has examined the use of academic strategies, which entail a variety of tactics that may facilitate achievement (Boss & Vaughn, 2002; Ward & Traweek, 1993; Zimmerman, 2002). Although, multiple perspectives are discussed within the literature, and the terminology may differ slightly across these perspectives, some of the most common types of strategies include cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Cantrell et al., 2010; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993). It should be noted that there are differences in the terminology and classification of academic strategies. Many have also classified various academic strategies into two broad categories of learning strategies and metacognitive strategies (PISA, 2009; Woolfolk, 2014). In particular, this perspective is consistent with the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2009) which served as the primary data source for this study. From this perspective, learning strategies may entail both cognitive strategies and control strategies that are used to optimize students' learning of content. Cognitive strategies include a variety of actions but some popular strategies include memorization, elaboration, or summarization (PISA, 2009; Pintrich et al., 1993; Woolfolk, 2014). A common theme among these strategies is that they enhance learning by compensating for limitations on one's cognitive abilities. For example, one may choose to use a memorization strategy, such as rote repetition or creating an acronym, because without the support of such a strategy, the number of pieces of information to be remembered would exceed or strain the learner's memory capacity. Relatedly, another cognitive strategy, elaboration, entails creating connections between prior learning and new information, which supports learning by capitalizing on cognitive predispositions to remember content that is connected to prior knowledge.On the other hand, control strategies have been defined in multiple ways within the literature; however, PISA (2009) describes control strategies as the actions that students take to identify the key purpose of a task or identify the main concepts. From this perspective, control strategies are considered to be within the larger category of learning strategies because the identification of key information should enhance learning (Gardner, Brown, Sanders, & Menke, 1992).In contrast to learning strategies, another class of strategies within the PISA, 2009 measures include metacognitive strategies, which help a learner "think about his or her thinking" (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). For example, a metacognitive strategy to check one's understanding of a paragraph immediately after reading the paragraph might increase the reader's awareness that he or she did not understand the text. Similarly, one may summarize a paragraph into their own words to monitor how well they understood the text. A primary benefit of metacognitive strategies is that increased awareness, especially when a learner is struggling, provides an opportunity for the learner to take actions, such as utilizing learning strategies, to improve learning.Learning Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, and AchievementResearch has been relatively consistent in showing that metacognitive strategies are related to achievement and learning across many content areas, but especially reading, mathematics, and science. …

The Effect of Educational Leadership on Organizational Variables: A Meta-Analysis Study in the Sample of Turkey.

Abstract: Leadership, which is prominent in every occasion where the concept of organization is articulated and which is addressed in different dimensions by each organization, is a concept that is very important in the field of education, and it is becoming the subject of many researches. In the literature of educational research, schools and school administrators are the first subjects that come to mind when leadership is mentioned. In this regard, school administrators are expected to show leadership behaviors, such as providing guidance, supporting, assigning a measurable responsibility and being a source of inspiration to all school employees and students in order to achieve the aims of the school. In addition, school leaders should form the ground that provides in-class reform and development, in order to create a positive learning environment in the school (Nichols, 2011). In this context, the studies of educational leadership have emerged in 1970s, in conjunction with research and development activities related to the effective schools movement. In those years, based on the observations of primary schools, some researchers in the UK and North America have identified that some schools' achievements in terms of learning outcomes were bigger than others. They have stated that this situation cannot be solely explained with the individual and social characteristics of the students; therefore the difference between effective and ineffective schools might be associated with the leadership attitudes and behaviors that school administrators have exhibited. Thus, educational leadership became a concept that has been discussed a lot on it. According to these researchers, the characteristics of effective schools' leaders are (Kruger & Scheerens, 2012);* They are directly involved with the school and the education of students.* They carefully evaluate teachers' classroom performance, learning process and student outcomes again and again.* They create a work environment and school climate which will make learning possible for all children.Schlechty (2001) has stated that the main task of the school is working with knowledge. This idea is based on the fact that learning is an active process. Thus, he argued that schools should be institutions working towards an objective with the help of the ideas, concepts, forms, shapes and symbols. Although the schools are solely seen as the places where learning takes place, in reality it is well-known that they are the institutions beyond mere learning, with a much more complex structure. From this perspective, even though schools are a tool for generating and transferring the culture, they are also the places where the official ideology is produced and communicated (Ilich, 1998). The effectiveness of such a complex structure, with its social, cultural, economic and political aspects has become attractive for researchers.One of the most critical factors in the realization of effective schools is the leadership behaviors of school administrators. In the literature this type of leadership is discussed in different forms and dimensions, such as education leadership, instructional leadership, program leadership, and educational leadership. At the beginning, this concept has been discussed in a limited context, as course and program leadership, however later it was considered in a broader sense to include the mentioned dimensions, in terms of the concepts such as educational leadership, education and training leadership. Although it is called by different names, it can be understood that these leaderships basically refers to the school administrators who were trying to establish effective schools and learning.School leader is the person who is planning and implementing program development, making appropriate resource allocation, improving the performance of staff and students by motivating and guiding them, in order to achieve the objectives of the school. School leaders, after setting the objectives of the school, ensure that these objectives are shared and supported by the students, teachers and school community. …

Factors Related to Instructional Leadership Perception and Effect of Instructional Leadership on Organizational Variables: A Meta-Analysis.

Abstract: It has been placed a great emphasis on leadership skills of school principals associated with research on effective schools since the end of 1970s. Leadership skills of a school principal have been considered as one of the main factors on school effectiveness. As a result, a transition from school principalship to school leader has become an important issue. In this light, instructional leadership has come into the picture as a new conceptualization of leadership with regard to school principals. Instructional leadership of school principals has been identified as the skills, which principals directly show or enable the others to show in order to increase the achievement level of students in schools (De Bevoise, 1984). Related literature about school administration has described instructional leadership skills of school principals in various aspects and dimensions (Daresh & Ching-Jen, 1995; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985; Vildly & Dimmock, 1993). Research has indicated that there has been a close relationship between instructional leadership skills of school principals and school outputs, student achievement, and restructuring of schools (Chance, 1991; Duke, 1987; Hallinger & Murphy, 1990). On the other hand, it has been found that these instructional leadership skills have also to some extent related to personal and contextual factors (Cooke, 1995; Gulledge, 1995; Wildly & Dimmock, 1993).Dimensions of Instructional Leadership Skills of School PrincipalsThere has been some classification of instructional leadership skills of school principals in the related literature. These classifications mainly consist of identifying and defining the school visions, missions and goals, building consensus about school goals, providing the necessary resources for teaching, coordination, management, control and evaluation of teaching and curriculum, monitoring evaluating and developing the staff, creating close relationship and cooperation between staff, regular teaching-learning climate, enabling the support from society and environment, being a role model and teaching source (Andrews & Soder, 1987; Blank, 1987; Daresh & Ching-Jen, 1985; DeBevoise, 1984; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985, l986; Heck, Larsen, & Marcoulides, 1990; Krug, 1992; Reed, Krysinski, Gougeon, & Furman, 1988; Wildly & Dimmock, 1993).The skills in question in this research consisted of five dimensions that are stated in the following: (i) Identifying and sharing school goals, (ii) Management of instructional programmes and teaching process, (iii) Evaluation of teaching process and students, (iv) Supporting and developing teachers, (v) Creating a safety learning climate and work environment.Identifying and sharing school goals. it is expected from a school principal playing a leading role in identifying school goals by initially determining school vision and mission. The importance of school goals need to be emphasized, explained and shared during the meetings with students, teachers and parents.Management of instructional programmes and teaching process. One of the main inputs of school is programmes. In order to successfully implement such programmes, necessary conditions and maximum learning opportunities need to be prepared. In successful schools, school principals have a pivotal role in planning, implementing and coordinating of programmes.Evaluation of teaching process and students. This dimension involves teaching, inspection, evaluation of programmes, monitoring and evaluating student development. School principal should discuss and provide feedback about the teaching process and results of student evaluation with the school staff. Also, s/he needs to make use of the results in determining the success level of school and programmes goals.Supporting and developing teachers. One of the main responsibilities of the school principal is to help every people in the school develop their professional qualifications, also, to enable teachers make use of these new knowledge and qualifications in the school. …

Managing Resources and Relations in Higher Education Institutions: A Framework for Understanding Performance Improvement.

Abstract: Higher education institutions (HEIs) have recently been approaching saturation in Taiwan in terms of the intensity of their development. Their educational pattern has been transformed from education of the elite to education of the masses (Taylor, Webber, & Jacobs, 2013). Moreover, Taiwan's birth rate has plummeted from 2.06 in 1984 to only 1.07 in 2013 (Ministry of Interior, 2014). As a result, increasing competition among HEIs demonstrates that these various disadvantages have jointly led to an oversupply of HEIs. If HEIs' competing against one another is currently acceptable, then it is necessary to consider the following questions: "Why do some HEIs consistently outperform others?" and "What are the implications for institutional strategy development?" (Lynch & Baines, 2004). Most of the cases within research that consider the performance evaluation of HEIs come from Western countries (Colbert, Levary, & Shaner, 2000; Korhonen, Tainio, & Wallenius, 2001; Abbott & Doucouliagos, 2003) while few studies have been conducted regarding Asian HEIs' performance, especially those in Taiwan. In particular, concerning public and private HEIs, Taiwan's public HEIs possess more educational resources and better reputations compared to private institutions; therefore they better meet students' needs and attract more public donations and institutional funds. For this reason, exploring the performance and development of HEIs in Taiwan is an interesting and meaningful research issue (Beard, 2009).HEIs can be deemed well-structured organizations (Kale, 2013). Although consideration factors related to institutional development and institutional growth differ greatly among them (Chapple, Lockett, Siegel, & Wright, 2005), some scholars have suggested that performance evaluations still should contain measurements of research, teaching, and service outcomes (Henry & Neville, 2004; Nevilli & Henry, 2006; Parks & Riggs, 1993). By referring to discussions in the literature about organizational management, one can further understand the keys to success. From a systematic viewpoint, factors that influence organizational operations can be roughly divided as internal and external (Lee, Lee, & Pennings, 2001). In terms of internal factors, scholars have focused on the quantity and attributes of internal resources using the resource-based view (RBV; Barney, 1991; Penrose, 1959; Wernerfelt, 1984). They have suggested that the development and performance of an organization depends on the quantity of resources it owns (Barney, 1991). Regarding external factors, relational resources bring HEIs several advantages that enable them to resolve competitive conflicts, obtain greater learning benefits, deal with turbulence and environment uncertainty, and absorb external resources (Feldman & Schipper, 2007; Leana & Pil, 2006; Walter, Auer, & Ritter, 2006). Accordingly, assets gained from external relations and leverage effects are called social capital (Leana & Van Buren, 1999; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998; Yli-Renko, Autio, & Tontti, 2002).This study builds on previous work by explicitly addressing from internal and external sources the underlying mechanisms that facilitate the improvement of HEIs' performance. Although the RBV and social capital theory have achieved remarkable results in studies in the field of education, little research has been conducted on resource variables specific to HEIs. Therefore, exploring the relationship between resource variables and institutional performance will give rise to practical implications regarding institutional governance and theoretical foundations of institutional research, as well as significant insights to HEIs in other countries facing similar situations.The present study has three purposes. Firstly, it explores how HEIs utilize educational resources to realize and improve their performance by using the RBV to divide organizational resources into two categories: university reputation (Boyd, Bergh, & Ketchen, 2010) and slack resources (Nohria & Gulati, 1996; Su, Xie, & Li, 2009; Voss, Sirdeshmukh, & Voss, 2008). …

Scrutinizing Practicum for a More Powerful Teacher Education: A Longitudinal Study with Pre-service Teachers

Abstract: While the undisputed goal of student achievement pursuant to the field of education "In a world where education matters more than it ever has before, ..." (Darling- Hammond, 2006, p. 4) exists, there is also growing empirical evidence that the quality of teacher preparation and certification plays a determining role in attaining this goal (Darling-Hammond, 2000a, 2000b, 2006; Yildirim, 2013). As a result, the field of teacher education faces the "problem" of explaining how teachers learn to teach, which the related literature has argued to be possible through reflection (Richards, 2008). Reflection as a practice is a highly valued component of pre-service teacher training (Akcan, 2010; Betil-Eroz, 2013; Hamiloglu, 2014; Seferoglu, 2006) as it stimulates the growth and development of teachers as professionals (Loughran, 2002).School-based practicum, another important aspect acknowledged to be highly influential in the initial education of teachers (Hascher, Cocard, & Moser, 2004), lies at the heart of pre-service teachers' knowledge construction and professional development (Tang, 2004), and growing consensus exists on the necessity of a reflective practice for pre-service teachers in practicum settings. With the help of observing real teaching/learning contexts and carrying out tasks under the supervision of university lecturers and cooperating teachers, pre-service teachers can develop their own teaching knowledge and skills and reflect on their beliefs (Tarman, 2012); this supports their cognitive learning and development (Cheng, Cheng, & Tang, 2010). Practicum is recognized as a learning arena where pre-service teachers maximize their opportunity to bridge theory with practice.Regarding the importance of reflection incorporated into practicum during preservice teachers' professional development, Hamiloglu (2013) aimed to investigate whether pre-service teachers' professional identities during their practicum were influenced more effectively when they could reflect. Data was collected through reflective journals, interviews, and stimulated recall sessions. The results showed that participants had become more aware of the transformation of their emerging identities from being imagined to practice. She interpreted this finding to suggest that practicum plays a prominent role as long as it has a critical reflective nature.Prior to practicum, pre-service teachers also have a chance to gain some practical experience through microteaching simulations during their university courses. Microteaching, which dates back to the 60s, has been criticized for concealing the characteristics of the technicist view of teaching in its nature since learning to teach is conceptualized as acquiring, practicing, and reinforcing a discrete set of behaviors. However, it is important to note that it is particularly valued by pre-service teachers (Farrell, 2008; Seferoglu, 2006) in terms of the positive impact it is argued to have on growth in the teaching profession. After rejecting the technicist view of teaching, microteaching simulations retained a position in teacher education by undergoing some modifications that provided room for systematic reflection to be incorporated into microteaching (Johnson & Arshavskaya, 2011). The practices that accompany self-examination have made it especially feasible in larger contexts which include social and institutional agents (Farrell, 2008).One powerful tool that has been used to facilitate reflection in pre-teacher education is video recording (LeFevre, 2004). This enables pre-service teachers to capture the complex nature of the teaching practice that occurs in a classroom. Furthermore, it allows a number of different possibilities, such as performing detailed analyses of one's own teaching practices for professional development, catching things that might not have been noticed from the first viewing, and having increased self-awareness. The use of video within pre-service teacher education has been incorporated into the practicum lessons delivered at cooperative schools (Akcan, 2010; Kuter, Altinay Gazi, & Altinay Aksal, 2012; Rosaen, Lundeberg, Cooper, Fritzen, & Terpstra, 2008; Siry & Martin, 2014) and some micro-lessons delivered at university-based methodology courses (Savas, 2012). …

Investigation of the Self-Regulated Learning Strategies of Students from the Faculty of Education Using Ordinal Logistic Regression Analysis

Abstract: One of the most important targets of education in the developing and changing world is to raise individuals to think, explore, question, produce, decide by themselves, undertake the responsibility of learning, control their learning processes, take part actively in such processes, and have self-confidence in their capabilities and correctly use these capabilities, instead of individuals raised with traditional education involving mechanical learning. In recent years, exploration and understanding of their own learning processes by the students as well as the support given by trainers in learningteaching environments has gained importance with respect to achieving effective learning. It is now well-known that the factors effective for learning are not only cognitive as affective factors also have an important role (Tait-McCutcheon, 2008).One of the most important factors influencing learning and academic success is the concept of self-regulation. The research on the concept of self-regulation emerged in the mid-1980s to answer the question, "How can students manage their own learning processes?" (Zimmerman, 2001).There are various definitions of the concept of self-regulation in literature. According to Bandura (1986), who first introduced the concept, self-regulation is the individual playing an effective role in and controlling the learning-teaching process by the identification of learning targets. Zimmerman (1989), who attracted attention with his work on selfregulation, defined this self-regulation as the extent to which the students actively participate in their learning processes with respect to meta-cognition, motivation, and behavior, while Kauffman (2004) defined it as the learner's attempt to control and manage complex learning activities. Pintrich (2000), however, expressed self-regulation as an active and constructive process by which the students identify their learning objectives and regulate their cognition, motivations, and behavior. Considering the definitions of self-regulation, the requirement for students to play an active role in the learning processes emerges as a common point. The individual will become aware of his/her own learning, will establish his/her own control, and will assess himself/herself in processes in which he/she is active. Risemberg and Zimmerman (1992) defined self-regulation as determining objectives, developing strategies to achieve these objectives, controlling the gains of these strategies, and indicating the importance of the utilization of self-regulated learning strategies.One of the fundamental factors that affects the learning process based on selfregulation is self-regulating strategies. Self-regulation strategies are cognitive strategies such as repetition, interpretation, and organization of the effort spent by the students when they are accomplishing a task in the learning-teaching process (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). Self-regulation is in a cyclic relationship with a multitude of variables; for example, when the self-efficacy level of the students on a subject increases, it may affect their self-regulation skills on the subject, and using self-regulation strategies may increase their self-efficacies, ensuring more self-regulation. From another perspective, individuals with high academic success may ensure more self-regulation, and individuals who can self-regulate may increase their academic success.The literature on the subject reports numerous studies that reveal the relationship between the concept of self-regulation and gender (Akkaya, 2012; Alci & Altun, 2007; Cebesoy, 2013; Celik Ercoskun & Kose, 2014; Erdogan & Sengul, 2014; Gomleksiz & Demiralp, 2012; Kadioglu, Uzuntiryaki, & Capa Aydin, 2011; Ozkal & Sucuoglu, 2013; Sagirli & Azapagasi, 2009; Uredi & Uredi, 2005; Yuksel, 2013; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Ponds, 1992; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990), self-efficacy (Israel, 2007; Ocak & Yamac, 2013; Pintrich, 1999; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Virtanen, Nevgi, & Niemi, 2014; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990), and academic success (Akkus Ispir, Ay, & Saygi, 2011; Altun, 2005; Altun & Erden, 2013; Arsal; 2009; Bembenutty, 2011; Bono & Bizri, 2014; Cheng, 2011; Duru, Duru, & Balkis, 2014; Malpass, O'Neil, Harold, & Hocevar, 1999; Tekbiyik, Camadan, & Gulay, 2013; Turan & Demirel, 2010; Israel, 2007; Uredi & Uredi, 2005, 2007; Yuksel, 2013). …

Relationship between Professional Learning Community, Bureaucratic Structure and Organisational Trust in Primary Education Schools *

Abstract: Like most public institutions, schools have to make adjustments because of changes in the social, economic and political climates in which they operate. Making such adjustments is not a new phenomenon for schools. Throughout history, schools have altered their internal operations in various ways in response to external influences (Tylus, 2009, p. 1). As a result of external influences, schools search for ways to respond to the demands of society and policymakers, and they have had to develop a variety of strategies, including a change of school structures. Although many strategies have been suggested for this subject, some researchers suggest professional learning communities as a structural element to maximise school effectiveness (DuFour, 2008; Fullan, 2006; Schlechty, 2005; Schmoker, 2004). Professional learning communities attract the attention of schools that perceive change models as a strategic element (Dockery, 2011) and are seen as a strong area for staff development, school improvement and change (Hord, 1997).Research shows that professional learning communities positively affect student achievement, teacher morale, teacher effectiveness and job satisfaction, school culture and climate (Ackerman, 2011; Becenti, 2009; Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Grippen, 2007; Louis, Dretzke, & Wahlstrom, 2010; Moore, 2010; Supovitz, Sirinides, & May, 2010). Furthermore, professional learning communities decrease teachers' loneliness (isolation) and increases working capacity to ensure a productive school environment and improve the quality of teaching (Hord, 1996). In a professional learning community, teachers experience shared leadership (Huffman & Hipp, 2003), become aware of a distinct purpose (DuFour, Eaker, DuFour, & Karhanek, 2004), strengthen their commitment to the goals of the school and its mission (Lee, Smith, & Croninger, 1995; McLaughlin, 1993) and strengthen their commitment to student learning (McLaughlin, 1993).The attempts of schools to create professional learning communities usually fail. Many such attempts are put in action without considering the formal and informal aspects of the school organisation. When the desired results are not obtained, such attempts are shelved after a while. The effect of school structure on a professional learning community's formation, development and maintenance is often ignored. Moreover, determining an effective organisational structure to create a professional learning community is not considered in depth. The same situation is true for research that attempts to identify effective school characteristics. Although these studies describe how effective schools look, they do not provide information on the procedures that affect school structure, effectiveness and development (McGuigan, 2005). Such procedures need to be known to provide an understanding of how organisations structure themselves (Mintzberg, 2014).Many schools have attempted to create professional learning communities under different names. However, the type of organisational structure or structures that can effectively create professional learning communities has not been considered in depth or the structure has been neglected because of the belief in the immutability of the existing structure. The same situation is true for studies that have attempted to identify the characteristics of effective schools. Such studies do not provide descriptive information about the procedures that lead to development effectiveness and the functioning of the school structures even though they identify how effective schools look (McGugian, 2005). However, we need to know how schools function to understand how they configure themselves (Mintzberg, 2014). Recently, some studies have revealed that types of bureaucracy have an effect on professional learning communities starting from the assumption that school structures are bureaucratic. Structures with enabling bureaucracy are important factors in the creation of professional learning communities and affect instructional practices in the classroom (Gray, 2011; Search-Hudson, 2005; Tylus, 2009). …

A Study on Reflection in In-Service Teacher Development: Introducing Reflective Practitioner Development Model.

Abstract: The continuous development of societies requires a growing need for individuals who are well prepared for their profession. In order to ascertain whether individuals are well prepared, measurement and evaluation procedures can be used. Although the literature does not contain any research measuring the reflective development of language teachers in EFL programs, extensive research does exist on language teacher education, reflection, and teacher beliefs as independent areas (Avalos, 2011; Craig, 2013; Peacock, 2009; Riley, 2009; Schunk & Pajares, 2002). In this way, although the effect of a program focusing on improving teachers' reflective behavior and selfefficacy remains under-researched, these areas should be subject to critical scrutiny and well-organized study. As Brown (1995) pointed out, evaluation is 'the heart that connects and provides blood to all the other program elements.' In this regard, the primary focus of this study is to measure language teachers' reflective development using a new model of reflective practitioner development, abbreviated RPDM, based on a quasi-experimental design so as to ensure and maximize teachers' self-efficacy and reflection skills. The model emerging from "experiential learning" (Kolb & Fry, 1975) strives for two main constructs: reflection and continuous development in order to provide the best possible practices in language teachers' professional development. As is known, not every teacher is able to acquire or continue to develop the knowledge and skills that they need or which are required by the institution in which they are employed.Reflection here plays a major role because the nature of practice is such that improvement can only be fostered depending on how the professional understands the concept of self and the nature of the practical (Calderhead, 1987). Moreover, reflection enables teachers to make careful considerations about what their experience are all about and to form a habit of continually learning from their own experiences by framing problems of practice, by critiquing and reframing problems within broader perspectives, and by taking action that is fostered by such reframing (Kayapinar, 2013). In this sense, teachers may become reflective practitioners, adopting a reflective stance toward their practice as a means of on-going professional development (Reis-Jorge, 2007).Continuous development, just as reflection does, holds learning to be a continuous process grounded in experience that requires the resolution of conflicts relating to or resulting from experience (Kolb, 1984).Self-efficacy refers, as Bandura (1997) stated, to people's convictions about their own capabilities to successfully execute a course of action leading them to a desired outcome. It concerns one's judgment of his or her capabilities and sense of competence within a specific framework. Basically, it focuses on one's own assessment of his/her own abilities in relation to goals and standards, built on personal past experiences of mastery.It was students' complaints about their teachers' poor performances, high attrition rates of the previous academic year, and the belief that their teachers' performances should be improved that paved the way to in-service teachers' professional development processes using a new model to develop teachers' reflective abilities and self-efficacy beliefs. Not only can teachers improve reflective abilities and self-efficacy beliefs in such an educational process, so too can their awareness of the potential of engaging in problem identification be raised through noticing and questioning events of their everyday practice (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1982). In this regard, the Reflective Practitioner Development Model was developed and introduced by the researcher.The RPDM ContextRequiring personal and intellectual growth of oneself and of others, reflection is both a process which builds meanings and a systematic, rigorous way of thinking moving a learner from one experience to the next all while facilitating a deeper understanding in the learner through interaction with others (Rodgers, 2002). …

Analysis through Hidden Curriculum of Peer Relations in Two Different Classes with Positive and Negative Classroom Climates.

Abstract: Students spend an important amount of time in classrooms during their education. A student spends approximately 4500 hours in a classroom until the end of primary school, 13,500 hours until the end of secondary school and up to18,000 hours by the end of high school. Thus the environment of their social and academic learning is based on the classroom climate. Classroom climate can be defined as the quality of the perceived classroom environment (Lee, 2005; Rowe, Kim, Baker, Kamphaus, & Horne, 2010), and can either help the students learn in a higher level or become a barrier, preventing their learning process (Lee, 2005). Penick and Bonnstetter (1993) describe classroom climate as "the conceptual image of the classroom, common for classmates."The structure and component of the classroom climate varies according to different sources (Fraser, 1998). For example, some sources [(Science Laboratory Environment Inventory, Fisher, Henderson, & Fraser, 1997; Fraser, Giddings, & McRobbie, 1995; Fraser & McRobbie, 1995; Wong & Fraser, 1995); Constructivist Learning Environment; (Arkun & Ackar, 2010; Taylor, Dawson, & Fraser, 1995; Taylor, Fraser, & Fisher, 1997)] consider the classroom climate in its relationship with a specific field, or with a lesson; whereas others consider it separately (Rowe et al., 2010). In addition, when the focus is on the individual perception of the social climate of the classroom, four principal elements emerge: peer relations; teacher-student relations; the way that individuals considers themselves in the academic field; and the way that they get satisfaction in the classroom (Doll, Spies, LeClair, Kurien, & Foley, 2010). Peer relations in the classroom are one of the most important elements (Hinshaw, 2001; Wentzel, 1998; Wentzel, Battle, Russell, & Looney, 2010). Nevertheless, the quality of the teacher-student relations influenced the academic and social improvement of the student at every age and socio economic state (Burchinal, Peisner-Feinberg, Pianta, & Howes, 2002; Jerome, Hamre, & Pianta, 2009; Murray & Malmgren, 2005; Pianta, La Paro, Payne, Cox, & Bradley, 2002; Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997; Pianta & Stuhman, 2004).Another element of classroom climate-"academic competence"-concerns the perception of the students about their competence in class (Bandura, 1994). Despite the fact that this element can be a relevant and positive sign of academic success, it is in negative correlation with behavior problems in the classroom (Doll et al., 2010; Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000). "The satisfaction of being in the classroom" can be defined as "having pleasure of joining in class activities" (Fisher & Fraser, 1981; Finn, 1989).Because of the diverse and multidimensional aspect of classroom climate, this research focuses on the in depth analysis of peer relations, which is only one of its elements. Peer relations is one of the most important components of classroom climate. Many researchers emphasize the importance of the support between peers in the education processes (Hinshaw, 2001; Wentzel, 1998). It is observed that individuals who think that their classmates care about them get more immersed in activities at school (Wentzel et al., 2010). Conversely, for those who feel a lack of care and support from their peers, academic risk and behavior disorders are observed (Goodenow, 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Wentzel, 1994). Classmates can also support each other by giving signs of information relating to their model for academic competence (Schunk, 1987). While analyzing the relationship between social structure and classroom climate, it is seen that this notion has utmost importance for students who are disadvantaged in terms of cognitive and affective input behaviors. There is a stronger possibility that these students will not be successful within the education system and will repeat a year or leave school at an early age (Milner, 2013). …

How Powerful is Feedforward in University Education? A Case Study in Romanian Geography Education on Increasing Learning Efficiency

Abstract: Theoretical BackgroundProfessors in the Romanian university system plan and organize their activities under the assumption that their students have the subject-specific competences mentioned in the school curricula for the geography class in the pre-university education system or from previous years of university studies. In reality, these students do not have all these competences developed at a superior level, and this is the reason they have difficulties when solving tasks. Frequently, professors notice this situation rather late, after students' involvement in the learning process. At this point, professors cannot change any results and are only able to offer feedback (Cathcart, Greer, & Neale, 2014).In order to prevent students from failing and to fill in the gap between students' necessary knowledge or the competences that professors expect and the real ones that professors actually use, there are diverse educational tools beside the ones from their pedagogical discourse: tests, questionnaires, checklists, worksheets, study guides, instructions, protocols, tutorials, examples, glossaries, and so on. When planning activities and educational tools, professors should anticipate students' problems when learning and should find appropriate ways to formatively intervene. In order to solve the problem by increasing students' success rate and diminishing failure, this study looked for the best educational mechanisms and tools for professors to use during their students' learning process during courses and seminars as well as apart from these formal activities, not after students have finished learning. Some researchers consider feedforward to be such a prevention mechanism (Baker & Zuvela, 2013; Cathcart et al., 2014; Goldsmith, 2008), but opinions about how to use it differ (Duncan, 2007; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Hernandez, 2012; Koen, Bitzer, & Beets, 2012; Murtagh & Baker, 2009).During activities, professors often empirically use both feedback and feedforward. In opposition to feedback, feedforward is a controversial subject that has been paid little attention in educational research. So that professors are able to use feedforward from a scientific perspective, this study performs an exploratory research by finding proof for the use of feedforward in comparison with feedback; it also utilizes a quasi-experimental research to test certain tools with a feedforward role. Direct observation, documents, and findings were observed in order to draw a series of theoretical conclusions about feedforward.Understanding and explaining feedforward has been enabled through a series of studies on feedback that focused on presenting the concept (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Higgins, Hartley, & Skelton, 2001; Lyster & Ranta, 1997), its importance during learning (Brown, 2004; Brown, Harris, & Harnett, 2012; Clarke, 2003; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Pajares & Graham, 1998), the receiver (Higgins et al., 2001; Irving, Harris, & Peterson, 2011; Wiggins, 2004), the feedback source (Brown et al., 2012; Peterson & Irving, 2008; Topping, 2010), administration conditions (Brown et al., 2012; Hattie & Timperley, 2007), the moment of giving feedback (Hattie & Timperley, 2007), the methods of giving it (Koen et al., 2012), typology (Fink, 2007; Harris, Brown, & Harnett, 2014; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Irving et al., 2011; Mori, 2011; Murtagh & Baker, 2009; Shute, 2008), its impact (Brown, 2004; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Koen et al., 2012), and its efficiency (Akalin & Sucuoglu, 2015; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Irving et al., 2011; Shute, 2008; Topping, 2010).The neurosciences have frequently researched feedforward using feedforward to trigger: visually selective behavior (Van Rullen & Koch, 2003), the learning capability and storage capacity of feedforward networks (Huang, 2003), and the changes in feedforward postural adjustments following voluntary motor training (Tsao & Hodges, 2007). …

Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support Practices: Review of Studies in the Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions*

Abstract: Schools are valuable settings in that they provide children, families, educators, and community members with chances to learn, teach, and grow. These settings are able to present positive adult and peer examples, various and daily chances to have academic and social achievement, and permanent peer and adult relations promoted by social exchanges (Sugai et al., 2000).Discipline problems such as widespread alcohol, drug abuse, and bullying shown in schools in the late 1990s, focused everyone's attention on these problem behaviors (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Such problem behaviors increasing steadily in schools pushed people and policy makers to search for new solutions to prevent these problem behaviors in schools. As Skiba (2000) said, traditional methods such as zero tolerance, strict rules and punishment, and others were of no use. There was also no evidence-based research proving the positive effect of these methods on students. As Sugai and Horner noted, such systems not using positive behavior supports caused increases in the problem behaviors that needed to be reduced. In a similar way, Costenbader and Markson (1998) stated that exclusion and punishment of problem behaviors are not effective in the long term. Some types of punishment can even be rewarding and cause problem behaviors to continue. "Traditional school discipline practices" (TSDP) (Scheuermann & Hall, 2011, pp. 12-13) and PBS (Positive Behavior Support) are compared in Table 1.Sprague and Horner (2006) indicated the main points of a schoolwide system for positive behavior support are: (a) problem behavior in schools is not only an important social challenge but also an obstacle to effective learning; (b) it has not been proven that conventional "get tough" approaches are effective; (c) a positive social culture needs to be established first through describing, teaching, and rewarding appropriate behaviors as the basis for all behavior support; (d) further behavior support processes beased on principles of behavior analysis are essential for students who need greater behavior support; (e) school staff are able not only to gather and utilize quality enhancement data systems, but also appreciate the value of those systems in terms of enhancing schools (pp. 413-427).PBS is neither a recent intervention package nor a recent behavior theory; it is rather a practice of a systems approach based on behavior to improve the capacity of schools, families, and communities with the aim of building effective settings that enhance the harmony or connection among practices validated by research and the settings where teaching and learning happen. It is focused on building and maintaining school settings that enhance behavioral outcomes for all children and youth through decreasing the effectiveness, efficiency, and relevance of problem behavior and increasing the functionality of desired behavior (Sugai et al., 2000).SWPBIS FrameworkSWPBIS is defined by the processes arranged around three major themes: Prevention, Multi-Tiered Support, and Data-based Decision Making. Contributing to the prevention of problem behavior are these principles: (a) describing and teaching basic behavioral expectations; (b) approving and awarding appropriate behavior (e.g., obeying the rules of the school, secure and considerate peer relations, and academic work/involvement); and (c) building a regular continuation of outcomes for problem behavior. Attention is focused on building a positive social atmosphere where expectations of behavior for students are greatly foreseeable, directly taught, constantly approved, and actively observed (Sprague & Horner, 2006).Homer, Todd, Lewis-Palmer, Irvin, Sugai, and Boland (2004) explained the Seven Key Features of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support as: (a) describe 3-5 expectations for appropriate behavior schoolwide; (b) actively have all students leam the schoolwide expectations of behavior; (c) observe and approve of students when they engage in expectations of behavior; (d) correct problem behaviors by using a continuation of behavioral outcomes regularly administrated; (e) collect and use data about student behavior in order to assess and direct decision-making; (f) get leadership of schoolwide applications from a director who 1. …

Trends in Doctoral Research on English Language Teaching in Turkey

Abstract: This review examines the doctoral research on English language teaching (ELT) between the years 2010 and 2014 in Turkey. The analysis focused on 137 PhD dissertations covering various aspects of English language learning and teaching, such as teaching English as a foreign language, foreign language teacher education, and second language acquisition (SLA). Of particular importance were the subject areas, research design, sampling methodology, and contexts with a special regard to adopted research paradigms of the dissertations analyzed. Including all of the dissertations completed in the last five years, the review also categorizes the dissertations in terms of those three major subject areas and sub-areas identified in a data-driven process.A comprehensive overview of research on applied linguistics and foreign language education in Turkey was published by Alptekin and Tatar (2011), surveying approximately 130 published articles, conference presentations and PhD dissertations from 2005 to 2009. Alptekin and Tatar (2011) also discuss in detail the history and sociopolitical dynamics of foreign language education in Turkey. Hence, the present review does not repeat those recollections, which are still valid under today's conditions. Instead, the focus is on research trends and concerns of the doctoral research written between 2010 and 2014.Over the last two decades, ELT PhD programs and scholars in Turkey have undergone a radical transformation process, during which the field has moved from a practice-based orientation to a research-based one (Uysal, 2014b). This transformation process was triggered mostly by the changing policies of Council of Higher Education in the late 1990s, when applying for associate professorship examination for ELT required a compulsory publication in certain scientific indexes. Those were initially the "Social Sciences Citation Index" and "Arts and Humanities Index." Later on in the mid-2000s, the Council began to accept research articles indexed the Australian Education Index, British Education Index, Education Index and ERIC as meeting the compulsory research article criterion. Therefore, doctoral students and assistant professors of ELT programs focused on publishing articles in the journals covered in those indexes. Surely, one of the effects of this transformation process is evident in graduate programs, PhD students, and dissertations.Another reason for the transformation in ELT academia was the need for English teachers at all levels of education in Turkey. Foreign language has been synonymous with English in Turkey for more than half a century. Considering that Turkey is a pure expanding circle context in which English is used only in certain professional domains, it is hard to teach and learn it. Thus, the demand for learning English and English teachers has always been incessant in the country. The need for English teachers does not come only from state or private primary and secondary schools alone. In 1995, the number of both state and foundation universities in Turkey was 56. However, it is now 196, meaning that the number of universities in the country has almost quadrupled over the last two decades. Considering that English is taught in English preparatory programs of some faculties and in undergraduate programs as a compulsory subject, those universities are constantly in acute need for competent English instructors. This persistent demand for English teachers has naturally created a pressure on ELT programs, specifically at graduate levels. Newly established ELT programs constantly seek PhD holders to employ so that they can receive and educate English teachers. Within this academic climate, it is not surprising that graduate programs receive a huge amount of PhD applicants and that PhD students work under constant pressure exerted by their future institutions. In addition to those volunteer applicants, the Council of Higher Education employs research assistants in its 'Academician Training Program' (Council of Higher Education, 2015), assigning those doctoral candidates to graduate programs. …

Reflections on High School Students' Graphing Skills and Their Conceptual Understanding of Drawing Chemistry Graphs

Abstract: Special importance was attached to science education in the Turkish education system in the 1960s in order to catch up with the scientific and technological developments that were occurring especially in European countries; up-to-date science programs were designed and new understanding was brought to these programs through the application of the scientific method as opposed to the context of unnecessary learning and rote memorization that had been included (Ergul, 1999). In order to increase the retention and meaningfulness of scientific knowledge, many concrete materials such as maps, charts, pictures, and graphs of concepts in addition to laboratories have been utilized. Since graphing is an indispensable element of science and social studies, students need to know from an early age how to use graphs and understand the different types (Inan, Inan, & Aydemir, 2014). The skill of using graphs is separated into three areas: interpretation, modeling, and conversion. Interpretation is about expressing the relevant graph orally, modeling is about expressing an observed state through graphs, and conversion is about drawing a different graph that expresses the same state as a given graph. All of these skills require using different types of intelligence. Individuals with mathematical-logical or visual-spatial intelligence need to see patterns in their learning to organize their information and see what they are learning (Secken & Yoruk, 2012). Visualization can be addressed through graphs that symbolize words or concepts and give more idea of the meaning of these words or concepts beyond their sound; thus, graphical representations play a special role in mathematics and science practice (Fuini & Gray, 2000). Different skills are essential in this century in terms of science and mathematics. One of the most important skills is the ability to work with data. This is exemplified by making inferences from given data, finding trends, critiquing and using data to support and rebut claims, ensuring complex relations (dual, triple, quadruple, etc.) between multivariate data, representing results in the quickest way, generating clear and perceptible data displays, and clarifying data assessment and analysis (Glazer, 2011; Kelly, Jasperse, & Westbrooke, 2005).Dori and Hameiri (2003) claimed that chemical education is a complex human endeavor that involves deep understanding of diverse concepts and requires a mental transfer between several modes of representation. Chemistry, being an experimental science, requires chemistry classroom schedules to involve experiments in laboratories. However, secondary schools do not have enough labs for chemical experiments, their equipment is insufficient for investigations, or they have no visual materials for effectively learning chemistry. Graphs are a tool of chemistry classes that can be used to express relations between most chemistry concepts. Therefore, students' proper comprehension and interpretation of the relations between chemistry concepts is directly related to their successful understanding and interpretation of graphs (Secken & Yoruk, 2012).Many researchers believe that inadequate graphing skills are a serious barrier to comprehending the concepts of mathematics and science (Lapp & Cyrus, 2000). Therefore, students' ability to interpret graphs and graphically represent scientific phenomena is critical. Science concerns the study of naturally occurring phenomena, and mathematics has allowed us to describe these phenomena in terms of equations that allow us to predict the behavior of systems as their conditions change. For this reason, mathematical knowledge is necessary for expressing scientific laws and solving problems (Guzel, 2004). A well-drawn graph provides a bridge between the two disciplines as it provides a convenient way of visualizing mathematics and science together. Graphs are overwhelmingly used in science education and laboratories in particular as they convey knowledge that most datasets cannot display alone. …

Views of Primary School Administrators on Change in Schools and Change Management Practices.

Abstract: Globalization, awareness of the importance of investment in human capital, exponential increase in knowledge, rapid development of technology, changing needs and expectations, establishment of international standards, and similar social, economic, political and technological developments have a significant impact on internal structures and operation of schools, and drive them to change (Hoy & Miskel, 2010). What is discussed now is not the necessity of change, but how to manage this process of change and how to achieve success (Sayli & Tufekci, 2008); because in order for a system to sustain and to be effective, it needs to adapt itself to the ever-changing conditions around itself (Kurcunoglu, 2006). Planning the change and ensuring its sustainability through successfully managing and implementing it is crucial for an organization to improve itself, to respond to demands, and to successfully continue to exist for a longer time (Akyuz, 2006; Ozmen & Sonmez, 2007). Change, in its general meaning, describes a situation where individuals or objects change their places or personal knowledge and skills become advanced over time (Kocel, 2011). In other words, change is the transformation of a system, a process or an environment from one status to another in a planned or unplanned manner (Sabuncuoglu, 2008). According to Kant, change happens when "special characteristics of something undergo change" or when "something is transformed into something else" (Yeniceri, 2002). From an organizational point of view, change describes a process experienced by an organization in order to provide more products and services in a more efficient, more productive and more competitive manner using more economic means in a shorter period of time. Changes in economic conditions, technological developments, market changes, legal amendments, and changing customer preferences due to social and political changes are considered among the external reasons of organizational change, whereas human resources problems, organizational inadequacies, financial problems, managerial behaviors and decisions as well as in-house innovation are considered among the internal reasons for change (Oztop, 2014). It is crucial for administrators to be aware of and to give reactions against such reasons, forcing organizations to change in terms of the organizations' success, both during this process of change and in the future. Change is a must for ensuring and sustaining organizational development, while change management as a skill is a must have qualification for administrators. An organization is a combination of individuals, technology, and structures and processes regulating individuals' relations with each other and with their profession. Organizational structure and processes have an important impact on the attitudes and behaviors of the employees in the organization. Therefore, organizational structure and processes cannot be regarded as separate from each other in terms of organizational change. Organizational development does not foresee a change only in individuals, technology, structure or processes, but a change in all of these as a whole (Friedlander & Brown, 1978 as cited in Balci, 2002). Owens (1987) defines organizational change as "a premeditated, planned, unusual and authentic effort that contributes to the organization to reach newer goals or to achieve the existing goals in a more effective manner" (cited in Altunay, Arli, & Yalcinkaya, 2012). In general, it is possible to speak of two types of change: planned and unplanned. "Planned change" is desirable for organizations, and means a change realized with the participation of and support of the members of an organization. "Unplanned change," on the other hand, is defined as inevitable change undergone by organizations, consciously or not, due to unexpected circumstances (Escalente, 2005; Ozdemir, 2000).Change is a difficult and a painful process for organizations. When goals of the change are in unity with the goals of employees, change is better supported by the employees (Ozkan, 2004; West-Burnham, 1991 as cited in Toremen, 2002). …