Showing papers in "Mountain Research and Development in 1988"

Degradation and conservation of the resources in the ethiopian highlands

Abstract: Soil degradation in the Ethiopian highlands and mountains was initiated with the introduction of agriculture several thousand years ago. Favourable conditions attracted early human settlers to this largest mountain complex in Africa and gradually all agriculturally suitable areas were occupied, including marginal land on slopes highly susceptible to soil erosion and degradation. The extent and distribution of soil degradation in the highlands as a whole is outlined and shows significantly greater damage in the northern and eastern regions which were settled first. There, the poor soil quality today results in reduced crop productivity and greater vulnerability to famine. Actual rates of soil loss are estimated according to the Universal Soil Loss Equation; the highest soil erosion rates occur in the western areas which clearly indicates that soils here are degrading more rapidly than soils in the north. The natural process of soil regeneration in the west is slow, with rates ten times lower than actual soil loss rates. However, measures introduced by the government in the last ten years are being applied by the Ethiopian associations of peasants. A more secure future requires that increases in production will exceed population increases and further, that soil depletion can be drastically reduced in order to sustain production in the long term.

The Bale Mountains National Park Area, Southeast Ethiopia, and Its Management

Abstract: The Bale Mountains National Park area of Ethiopia is an extensive high-altitude montane plateau. It is the catchment area for four major rivers, supplying water to parts of Ethiopia and Somalia and supporting irrigation and hydroelectric schemes. The forested flanks of the massif regulate water flow to these rivers. Many endemic species of fauna and flora are found in the area, which is also an important reservoir of genetic material. Management of the area presently falls under several departments and needs to be coordinated for the long-term benefit of the area and its populace.

Not seeing the trees for the forest: a re-appraisal of the deforestation crisis in two hill districts of Nepal

Abstract: The commonly accepted orthodoxy of widespread and disastrous deforestation in the hills of Nepal is challenged. Most investigators have concentrated their efforts on documenting the declining condition of the hill forests and have overlooked the fluid nature of tree cover on private farm land. Oral history records from two districts in Central Nepal are used to illustrate the way in which the hill peasant farmers have been steadily increasing the tree cover on their farm land during at least the last 20 years. While there is probably still a substantial net loss of tree cover overall, the crisis dimensions are undoubtedly much less than are often portrayed. RESUME' Une question de perception: Re'-valuation du niveau de deforestation dans deux districts montagneux du Nipal. Cet article remet en question l'opinion generalement acceptee que la deforestation des regions montagneuses du Nepal est generale et desastreuse. La plupart des chercheurs ont surtout essaye de documenter le declin des forets, mais ils ont neglig6 d'examiner la couverture d'arbres dans les exploitations agricoles privies. L'histoire orale recueillie dans deux districts du Nepal Central est utilis6e pour illustrer la maniere dont les exploitants des regions montagneuses ont continuellement augmente la couverture d'arbres sur leurs terres au cours des 20 dernieres annies. Bien que dans l'ensemble, les pertes de couverture d'arbres soient probablement encore tres importantes, la situation est moins critique que la plupart des descriptions ne le laissent entendre. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Man sieht den Wald vor Biiumen nicht: Eine Neubewertung der Entwaldungsthese in zwei Berggebieten Nepals. Die allgemein akzeptierte These von weitverbreiteter und katastrophaler Abholzung in den Bergen Nepals wird angezweifelt. Viele Nachforscher haben sich darauf konzentriert, den sich verschlechternden Zustand der Bergwiilder zu dokumentieren und haben dabei die sich verindernden Zustinde bei der Aufforstung auf privatem Farmland fibersehen. Mfindliche Geschichtsiiberlieferungen aus zwei Gebieten Zentralnepals zeigen, daf Bauern des Berggebietes wiihrend der vergangenen 20 Jahre den Baumbestand auf ihren Farmen stetig erhoht haben. Es ist m6glich, dag der Baumbestand insgesamt weiterhin Verluste hinnehmen mufi, dennoch ist das Ausmali der Krise zweifelsohne geringer, als es oft dargestellt wird.

Late-holocene vegetation of the andean araucaria region, province of neuquen, argentina

Abstract: The past 3,000 years of vegetation history of the western part of the Province of Neuqu6n is interpreted from fossil pollen, charcoal, loss on ignition, and lithology of two mires in the Andes Mountains. One record from an open stand of araucaria (Araucaria araucana) at 1,200 m elevation near Paso del Arco (38052'S, 71004'W) is of a 200-cm. section with an age of 2495 + 125 yr BP. The other record of a 300-cm section with a basal age of 3000 + 110 yr BP is from matorral-woodland at 1,000 m in the valley of the Rio Malleo (39036'S, 71 024'W). Southern beech (Nothofagus dombeyi type) and grass generally co-dominate the pollen diagrams, indicating mostly open vegetation, while varying proportions of these taxa imply community changes in the forest/steppe ecotone on the east side of the mountains. Against the backdrop of changing climate, a repetition of fires and volcanic eruptions has variously shaped the regional vegetation. Araucaria, from pollen evidence, has demonstrated an adaptive ability to endure these catastrophes over the period of record, thus accounting for its persistence as an endemic during past geologic ages in the volcanically active southern Andes.

Disturbance behaviour of chamois in an Alpine tourist area of Austria.

Abstract: Alarm and escape behaviour of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) in the Karwendel Mountain Range (North Tyrol) was observed for three years. The studies included behavioural sequences at different stages of alarm, variation in alarm responses with sex and season, reaction to different intruder types as well as escape direction and terrain. Flushing and escape distances (FD, ED) were estimated. Chamois used mainly vision to detect intruders. Three stages of alarm behaviour were identified. Surprise encounters with humans and airborne objects induced the strongest alarm responses. Chamois were habituated to various recurring, and thus predictable, human activities in their ranges. Both FD and ED ranged from 10 to 500 m and averaged 71 and 79 m, respectively. Weakest responses to disturbances were shown during winter, strongest responses during spring and early summer. Downslope escapes were more frequent than those directed upward or horizontally. Steep, forested cliffs were a preferred escape terrain. Females were significantly more sensitive to disturbances than males. Intensive disturbances caused by peaks in hiking, skiing, livestock grazing, and hunting at times displaced chamois from nutritionally important habitat for prolonged periods and altered the animals' accustomed daily and seasonal pattern of home range use. Recommendations for land management, based on these studies, are given. RESUME Comportement des chamois pris d'un centre touristique alpin en Autriche. Les reactions d'alarme et de fuite du chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) dans la chaine de montagnes du Karwendel (Tyrol septentrional) ont 6t6 observees pendant trois ans. Ces &tudes ont porte sur le comportement a diff6rents stades d'alarme, les variations de la r6action d'alarme selon le sexe et la saison, la reaction pour diff6rents types d'intrus, ainsi que la direction et le terrain de fuite. Les distances necessaires pour faire partir et faire fuir le chamois (FD et ED respectivement) ont ete evaludes. Le chamois utilise principalement la vision pour d&tecter les intrus. Trois stades du comportement d'alarme ont 6te identifi6s. Les recontres inattendues avec des humains ou des objets volants ont provoque les reactions d'alarme les plus fortes. Le chamois s'etait habitue ' diff6rents activites humaines regulieres, donc previsibles, dans son domaine. Les distances FD et ED varient entre 10 et 500 m, avec des moyennes respectives de 71 et 79 m. Les r6actions les plus faibles ont ete enregistrees pendant l'hiver, et les plus fortes au printemps et au d6but de l'6t&. La fuite vers le bas des pentes est plus frequente que la fuite vers le haut ou horizontalement. Les falaises escarpies et couvertes de forets constituent le terrain favori pour la fuite. La femelle est nettement plus sensible aux perturbations que le m.le. Les perturbations serieuses causees par les periodes intenses de tourisme a pied, de ski, de piturage du betail et de chasse ont parfois forc6 le chamois a quitter pendant longtemps un habitat important du point de vue de son alimentation. Cet 6tat de fait a alt&re les modes familiers d'utilisation journaliere et saisonniere du domaine. Des recommendations pour l'exploitation des terres, basees sur ces etudes, sont presentees. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Alarmverhalten der Gemse in einem Fremdenverkehrsgebiet der Alpen, Osterreich. Im Karwendelgebirge (Nordtirol) wurde ueber einen Zeitraum von drei Jahren das Alarmund Fluchtverhalten von Gemsen (Rupicapra rupicapra) studiert. Dabei wurden besonders die Verhaltenssequenzen bei verschiedenen Alarmstufen, die Vielfalt von Alarmreaktionen auf verschiedene Stoerobjekte bei beiden Geschlechtern und zu verschiedener Jahreszeit, sowie die Fluchtrichtung und das Fluchtgelaende untersucht. Die Entfernung zwischen Eindringling und Tier bei dessen Aufstoerung (FD) und die vom Tier im Lauf zurueckgelegte Entfernung (ED) wurden geschaetzt. Die beobachteten Gemsen machten einen Stoerfaktor vorwiegend durch Sichtkontakt aus. Es wurden drei Stufen von Alarmverhalten identifiziert. Unerwartete Begegnungen mit Menschen und fliegenden Objekten verursachten die staerksten Alarmreaktionen. An zahlreiche, sich fortwaehrend wiederholende und daher vorhersagbare menschliche Aktivitaeten in ihren Streifgebieten hatten sich die Gemsen gew6hnt. FD und ED reichten von 10 bis zu 500 Metern, der Durchschnitt lag bei 71 m fuer FD und 79 m fuer ED. Die schwaechsten Reaktionen auf Stoerungen zeigten sich waehrend des Winters, die staerksten waehrend des Fruehjahres und am Anfang des Sommers. Die Flucht abwaerts wurde haeufiger beobachtet als jene bergauf oder horizontal. Bevorzugtes Fluchtgelaende waren steile, bewaldete Talseiten. Weibliche Gemsen reagierten bedeutend empfindlicher auf Stoerungen als maennliche Gemsen. Waehrend der Hochsaisonen fuer Bergwanderer, Schifahrer, Jagd und Almweide sind Stoerungen verschiedenster Art so haeufig, dass die Gemsen zeitweise laengerfristig aus ihren nahrungsmaessig attraktiven Einstaenden vertrieben werden und dadurch der gewohnte taegliche und saisonale Ablauf zur Nutzung des Streifgebietes gestoert wird. Aufgrund dieser Studie werden Vorschliige fiir das Landmanagement gemacht. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.64 on Sun, 04 Sep 2016 05:41:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 66 / MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Vegetation and environment of the mountains of ethiopia: implications for utilization and conservation

Abstract: Two ecological belts of the Ethiopian mountains are described here - the Afro-alpine and the Afro-montane. The Afro- alpine belt consists of areas usually above 3,200 m. The rocks are volcanic, moisture is usually not a limiting factor, and soil temperatures are very low. Plants here are mostly adapted to drought and low temperature conditions; many are succulent, slow growing, and of low stature. Where there is no water, vegetation consists of meadow grasses, while aquatic species prevail under waterlogged conditions. Ericaceous scrubs grow at lower altitudes with shallow soils; on better soils are species of woody plants. Human population density is low and grazing is the most important activity. The Afro-montane belt extends from 900 to 3,200 m. Most of the plateau consists of volcanic rocks with deficient or toxic soils. Human activities here have had considerable impacts especially in the northeast, where devastation has been extreme. In the south- west some intact forest still remains, but on most of the plateau evergreen forest is now replaced by grasslands. Overgrazing is prevalent in most areas. Sedentary rain-fed agriculture is the usual practice, with mixed cereal agriculture in the north and east, and root crops in the west and south. Severe environmental deterioration is determined by socio-political rather than technical issues and calls

Soil erosion and mass wasting risk in the highland area of Uganda

Abstract: The highlands of Uganda, areas above 1,500 m, have a tropical, humid climate and a fragile environment. Although the terrain is steep, historical factors and favourable climate and soils have led to high population densities in certain areas. Increased pressure of the land has caused vegetation denudation and increased cultivation on steep slopes with no appropriate conservation strategies. The natural slope processes have been disrupted giving rise to increased soil erosion and mass wasting problems, especially between 1,500 and 2,500 m. A preliminary case study of Rukiga in the southwestern highlands shows that most slopes are seriously affected by all forms of soil erosion and that conservation measures are needed to prevent irreversible calamity.

The floristic composition of the menagesha state forest and the need to conserve such forests in ethiopia

Abstract: The Menagesha State Forest is one of the few protected natural forests in central Ethiopia. In this paper, the floristic composition of the forest which is representative of an afromontane forest is compiled, the need to conserve such forests is discussed, and some recommendations on how best to implement forest conservation policies are made. RESUME La composition floristique de laforit domaniale Menagesha et la conservation de tellesforits en Ethiopie. La foret domaniale Menagesha est l'une des rares forets naturelles qui soient sujettes 'a des mesures de protection en Ethiopie centrale. Cette etude passe en revue la composition floristique de cette fort typique des for ts montagnardes africaines, illustre le besoin de prot6ger de telles forets en Ethiopie, et preconise certaines methodes pour mettre en oeuvre une politique rationnelle de conservation des forkts. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Flora des Menagesha-Staatswaldes und die Notwendigkeit der Konservierung solcher Wiilder in Aethiopien. Der Menagesha- Staatswald ist einer der wenigen, geschiitzten Naturwiilder in Zentralaethiopien. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird die Zusammensetzung der Flora dieses afromontanen Waldes beschrieben. Die Notwendigkeit der Konservierung solcher Wilder in Aethiopien wird diskutiert, und einige Wege werden vorgeschlagen, wie Waldkonservierungsmassnahmen am besten durchgefifihrt werden.

Mountain Forests and the Upper Tree Limit on the Southeastern Plateau of Ethiopia

Abstract: Forests formerly covered the major part of the southeastern plateau of Ethiopia but today only a few remnants remain. With increasing altitude changes in species composition, diversity, structure of the stands, and morphology of the plants occur; these depend on the various limiting factors which characterize the ecological conditions. The natural upper tree limit is sharp and distinct and there is no transitional belt. The montane forests and the Afro-alpine belt are important genetic reservoirs for many endemic species yet they are fragile ecosystems; the forests have an important protective and productive function. The concept of conservation includes the establishment of forest reserves as well as management strategies based on a beneficial balance between resource development and the satisfaction of human needs. RE'SUMI Lesforits de montagne et leur limite superieure sur le plateau du sud-est de l'Ethiopie. La for&t couvrait autrefois la majeure partie du plateau sud-est de l'Ethiopie. Elle a 6t6 r6duite ta quelques vestiges qui ont 6t6 6tudi6s ici. La composition des espbces, leur diversit6, leur stratification et la morphologie des plantes varient r6gulierement avec l'altitude. Divers facteurs limitatifs caract6risent les conditions ecologiques. La limite de la foret est une ligne distincte et nette, sans zone de transition. La foret de montagne et la zone afro-alpine constituent d'importants reservoirs g6netiques avec de nombreuses espices end6miques. Les &cosystemes sont fragiles et les forets jouent un role de protection et de production important. La pr6servation de ces forkts suppose aussi bien la mise en reserve de certaines zones que leur exploitation judicieuse, permettant de satisfaire aux besoins humains tout en d6veloppant le niveau des ressources. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Bergwlilder und die Waldgrenze auf dem Siidost-Plateau von Aethiopien. Der gr6sste Teil des Sfidost-Plateaus von Aethiopien war frifiher von Wald bedeckt, der mittlerweile auf wenige Ueberreste reduziert worden ist. Diese Restwiilder waren das Objekt dieser Studie. Mit zunehmender Hbhe fiber Meer treten regelmiissige Verinderungen der Artenzusammensetzung, der Diversivitiit, Stratifizierung und Morphologie der Pflanzen auf. Verschiedene limitierende Faktoren priigen die unterschiedlichen Umweltbedingungen. Die natfirliche Waldgrenze ist eine klar erkennbare und scharf abgegrenzte Linie ohne Uebergangszone. Der Bergwald und die Afroalpine Zone sind wichtige genetische Reservoirs, die viele endemische Arten aufweisen. Allerdings sind diese Oekosysteme fragil. Die Wfilder sind wichtig im Hinblick auf ihre Schutzfunktionen und die Produktion. Das Konzept der Konservierung beinhaltet die Einrichtung von Schutzzonen wie auch verschiedene Formen der Verwaltung und Nutzung der Wiilder, die auf einer vorteilhaften Verbindung von Ressourcenentwicklung und Bedfirfnissen des Menschen basiert.

Human impact on some forests of the middle hills of nepal part 5. comparisons, concepts, and some policy implications

Abstract: Nepal has been an integral part of ancient Asian civilization from the dawn of recorded history yet it remained almost uninfluenced by the industrial revolution and subsequent technology until the middle of this century. A detailed study of the defores- tation and forest degradation which have occurred in Nepal therefore reveals many echoes of ancient and medieval times in the Mediterranean basin and we affirm that the state of Nepal's forests arises not from any modern novelty but is a consequence of gradual evolution over centuries from petty states to the present kingdom. We also reject views that the present forest situation is redeemable solely by technological action or that it arose from peasant ignorance or mismanagement, from simple overpopulation, or through any loss of primitive purity in the face of modern market economies. The concept of "the pressure of production on the resource" is found to provide a useful starting-point for the construction of a simple classification of the results of various pressures on the forest resource. Some implications of these matters for future forest policy and action are briefly discussed.

The impact of resource utilization on the hydrology of the Mau Hills forest in Kenya

Abstract: The Mau Hills form the western cuesta of the Great Rift Valley system in Kenya and have an altitudinal range from 2,000 to 3,098 m. The Hills are composed of Tertiary volcanics and receive high amounts of rainfall, experience moderate tempera- tures, and have fertile soils. The area is part of what is gazetted as indigenous forest reserves which form 2.4 percent of the country's total forest area. As a result of such favourable climatic elements and a rapidly growing population, there has been heavy pressure to convert the indigenous forest areas into either single-stand timber areas or into agricultural lands. The present paper outlines the hydrology of the Mau Hills with a view to understanding the nature of the conflicts in forest resource use and their hydrological consequences. Appropriate management techniques may be introduced to decelerate rates of erosion and mass wasting in mountain areas that are presently occupied by forest cover. RESUME L'impact de l'exploitation des ressources sur l'hydrologie desforits du Mau Escarpement au Kenya. Le Mau Escarpement forme la cuesta occidentale du Rift Valley (d6pression tectonique) du Kenya, et son altitude varie entre 2.000 et 3.098 m. L'Escarpement est constitue de roches volcaniques tertiaires; les pluies y sont abondantes, les temperatures mod&r6es et les sols fertiles. Cette r6gion fait partie des forkts qui sont officiellement reconnues comme reserves indigenes et qui constituent 2,4 pour cent de la totalit6 des forkts. Par suite de ces conditions climatiques favorables et d'une croissance demographique rapide, il est fortement considerei de convertir les forkts indige'nes en zones a peuplements uniques pour la production de bois, ou en zones de cultures. Cette etude passe en revue l'hydrologie du Mau Escarpement afin de mieux comprendre la nature des conflits lies a l'exploitation des ressources forestieres et leurs r6percussions sur l'hydrologie. Des methodes de gestion appropriees doivent etre introduites pour ralentir les taux d'&rosion

Some patterns of altitudinal variation of climatic elements in the mountainous regions of ethiopia

Abstract: This paper discusses altitudinal variation of temperature, radiation, and moisture in two extensive mountainous regions of Ethiopia. Mean values of climatic statistics at average altitudes are determined and their variation with altitude during the wettest and driest months are described. The critical altitudes seem to be 2,000 and 2,500 m. At these levels temperature, radiation, and moisture gradients change. It is these changes in gradient that probably influence the altitudinal zonation of vegetation and agricultural land use.

Soil conservation research in ethiopia

Abstract: Soil conservation in Ethiopia is considered today to be of top priority, not only to maintain and improve agricultural production but also to achieve food self-sufficiency, which is the long-term objective of the agricultural development programme. Therefore, a massive effort is being made in soil conservation by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Community Forests and Soil Con- servation Development Department has already implemented soil conservation measures on over more than 1 million hectares in the last ten years. However, systematic approaches through local problem identification in this country where there is great variability in agro-ecological factors have been very rare, and consequently soil conservation activities have had a lesser impact than expected. In order to improve this situation the Soil Conservation Project, funded by the Government of Switzerland, became operational in 1981. The project has six research units as experimental sites in Welo, Harerge, Sidamo, Shewa, Gojam, and Eritrea, representing the six most important agro-climatic zones of the Ethiopian highlands. The project so far has made valuable contributions to the scientific understanding of the process of erosion in Ethiopia and has provided useful suggestions for improving soil conservation practices in the field.

Soil resources in the highlands of uganda: prospects and sensitivities

Abstract: Soil resources in the highlands of Uganda have the potential for high agricultural production. They offer a diversity of opportunities for human survival. However, due to lack of conservation, productivity has been reduced drastically. Currently, major problems include many types of soil degradation: erosion, leaching, and biological degradation, including the reduction and degradation of vegetation, humus, and soil organisms. Causes include severe population pressure and lack of appropriate strategies for soil management, for policy implementation, and for development planning. To restore and improve soil resources in the high- lands of Uganda a positive approach and an urgent attempt to put an end to the above causal factors are needed. A well-planned soils policy is an essential first step. RESUME Ressources en sol dans les hautes terres de l'Ouganda: perspectives d'avenir et vulndrabilitis. Les sols des hautes terres de l'Ouganda sont tres favorables ' la production agricole, et il existe donc de nombreuses possibilites de peuplement humain. NManmoins, par manque de mesures de conservation des sols, la productivite a 6normement baiss6. A present, les problkmes majeurs consistent en diff6rents types de degradation du sol: erosion, lessivage et degradation biologique, y compris la reduction et la degradation de la vegetation, de l'humus et des organismes du sol. Les causes en sont une forte pression d6mographique et un manque de strategies effectives pour la gestion des terres, la mise en oeuvre d'une politique appropriee et la planification du developpement. Pour remettre en etat et ameliorer les sols des hautes terres de l'Ouganda, une approche positive est n6cessaire, ainsi que des mesures immediates destinies ah lminer les causes ci-dessus. Une politique de conservation des sols bien planifiee est indispensable pour commencer.

Agricultural Land Management under Population Pressure: The Kilimanjaro Experience, Tanzania

Abstract: Mount Kilimanjaro (5,896 m) in northeastern Tanzania is a huge volcanic cone the slopes of which are well endowed with fertile volcanic soils and abundant rainfall. They have supported an unusually dense population which increased from 128,000 in 1921 to 694,000 in 1978, and most of the people are concentrated in the wet highlands above 900 m. This created a land shortage and the average farm size decreased to one-tenth of that in 1921. The farmers were forced to diversify crops and intensify land use, and the carrying capacity of the land was more than doubled. Resource management techniques included terracing, irrigation, application of manure and fertilizer, and maintenance of shade trees to reduce soil erosion. Labour input per unit doubled between the 1930s and 1970; grazing lands and river valleys in the highlands were planted with coffee and bananas; and people settled in the dry lowlands to grow maize and cotton and to raise livestock. Further intensification by the introduction of dairying and cardamom growing may raise the carrying capacity, and the government has intro- duced new policies (irrigation, small-scale rural industries, outmigration) to try to maintain some stability and to correct the growing imbalance between resources and population in Kilimanjaro.

Subalpine Picea abies Decline in the Swedish Scandes

Abstract: Changes in vigour and demography of subalpine Picea abies (L.) Karst were assessed on a regional basis in the Swedish Scandes. The study was based on repeat photography from fixed points in 1972/73 and in 1985/86. Crown thinning was already in an advanced stage in 1972/73. Approximately 75 percent of the studied population had a crown thinning of more than 20 percent. This process progressed during the study period, when about 30 percent of the spruce experienced further thinning of 20 percent or more. The general character of vigour decline was unidirectional discoloration (reddish brown) of young supranival needles. It is suggested that the basic cause is summer (June-August) temperature decline since the early 1960s. It may be related also to increased frost hazard in late spring and early summer, due to earlier dehardening and growth initiation in response to a general warming in May and early June which has occurred since the early 1970s. RESUME Le diclin de l'espice subalpine Picea abies dans la chaine des Scandes, Sudde. Les changements de vitalit6 et de d6mographie affectant l'espece subalpine Picea abies (L.) Karst ont et6 6valus daneben mag erh6hte Frostgefahr im Spditfriihjahr und Frifihsommer eine Rolle spielen, da seit den friihen 70er Jahren ein allgemeiner Wiirmetrend im Mai und Juni beobachtet wurde, was zu verfriihtem Wachstum und Anpassung ffihrte.

Deep black clay soils (vertisols): management options for the ethiopian highlands

Abstract: Vertisols (deep black clay soils, often known as "black cotton soils") cover 8 million ha of the Ethiopian highlands. They account for about 70 percent of all highland soils with slopes between 0 and 8 percent. The high clay content of the Vertisols is responsible for their heavy waterlogging in highland areas with abundant rainfall and relatively low evaporation rates. This imposes severe restrictions on the traditional agricultural use of these soils and only 25 percent are currently cropped, mainly using residual moisture. Much of this land is left fallow and subject to erosion during the heavy rains. Evidence suggests there would be substantial increases in crop yields on Vertisols if excess surface soil water were drained off and if appropriate cropping practices were used. A research and outreach project on the improved management and utilization of highland Vertisols is examining the use of animal- powered devices for surface soil drainage, planting and tillage, the development of new cropping systems on drained Vertisols, and improved management of plant nutrients with the use of low cost phosphates and legumes as sources of nitrogen.

Water conservation for rain-fed farming in the semi-arid foothills west and northwest of mount kenya: consequences for soil productivity

Abstract: In semi-arid highlands west and northwest of Mt. Kenya, the recent immigrant farmers are facing problems of limited water resources; they originated from densely populated areas with a more plentiful annual rainfall and lack appropriate water conser- vation methods for the rain-fed farming of their much drier new land. Recurrent crop failure and low production on grazing land show the dangers of lack of water conservation measures. Since 1985 the Laikipia Research Programme has carried out a study on water conservation in two agro-ecological zones (semi- humid to semi-arid and semi-arid). Two small research stations have been established on the most common soil type and typical gentle slope in both areas. The aim is to test the influence of different land-use methods on water loss, soil erosion, and plant production on crop and grazing land. In addition to meteorological records, data are collected on different land-use testplots. The aim of water conservation is both short and long term: short term, for increasing yields in each growing period; long term, for sustaining natural resources such as soil fertility. Therefore, in semi-arid areas the strategy for water and soil conservation must be "produce and protect". RESUMe Conservation de l'eau pour l'agriculture dipendante des pluies sur les contreforts semi-arides a l'ouest et au nord-ouest du mont Kenya: consiquences pour la productiviti du sol. Les fermiers qui ont recemment immigr6 sur les hautes terres semi-arides de l'ouest et du nord- ouest du mont Kenya doivent surmonter les problemes presentes par des ressources en eau limitees. Ils viennent de regions densement peuplees et plus humides, et ne possedent pas les techniques de conservation de l'eau n&cessitees par l'agriculture dependante des pluies pratiqu&e sur ces terres beaucoup plus seches. Des mauvaises recoltes periodiques et une basse productivite des piturages signalent les dangers presentes par ce manque de mesures de conservation de l'eau.

Soils of the Highland and Mountainous Areas of Kenya with Special Emphasis on Agricultural Soils

Abstract: Kenya's landscape is of great topographic diversity, rising from sea level to 5,199 m a.s.1. at the summit of Mount Kenya. Climate, geology, and ~elief have created different agro-climatic zones with highly variable soil developments. These are discussed with reference to the highland areas above 1,500m. Of the fourteen major soil types, the dominant ones are Ferralsols, Acrisols, Phaeozems, and Nitosols. Deforestation, agricultural use of slopes, and overgrazing have significantly degraded most soils in the highlands, although they have good structure and relative resistance to soil erosion. A number of conservation measures were introduced in the late 1920s and again after 1972. Since 1980, the government has also heavily encouraged afforestation to control erosion. RESUME Sols des regions de hautes terres et de montagnes au Kenya, en particulier les solsfavorables ad l'agriculture. Le terrain du Kenya pr6sente une grande diversitb topographique, s'dlevant du niveau de la merjusqu'h 5.199 m au sommet du mont Kenya. Le climat, la geologie et le relief ont cre6 diff6rentes zones agro-climatiques avec des developpements de sol tres varies. Ceux-ci sont passes en revue en faisant ref6rence aux r6gions de hautes terres au-dessus de 1.500 m. Parmi les quatorze principaux types de sol presents, les plus importants sont les Ferralsols, Acrisols, Phaeozems et Nitosols. La deforestation, I'utilisation des pentes pour l'agriculture, et le surpaturage ont sensiblement d6grade la plupart des sols dans les hautes terres, bien que ces sols aient une bonne structure et relativement une bonne r6sistance h l'aFrosion. Un certain nombre de mesures de conservation des sols ont et6 prises a la fin des annies 20 et de nouveau apres 1972. De plus, le gouvernement a depuis 1980 fortement encourag6 l'afforestation pour lutter contre l'6rosion. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Bodentypen des Hochlandes und der Gebirge Kenyas mit spezieller Beachtung der landwirtschaftlichen Boden. Kenya's Landschaft weist grosse topographische Variationen auf und erstreckt sich vom Meeresspiegel bis zum Gipfel des Mount Kenya (5199 m ii.M.). Klima, Geologie und Relief haben die Entwicklung verschiedener agro-klimatischer Zonen mit sehr unterschiedlicher Bodenbildung bewirkt. Im vorliegenden Artikel werden die Boden typen fiir das Hochland oberhalb 1500 m ii.M. diskutiert. Von 14 Hauptbodentypen sind Ferralsol, Acrisol, Phaeozem und Nitosol die wichtigsten. Entwaldung, landwirtschaftliche Nutzung der Hiinge und Ueberweidung haben die meisten B8den im Hochland degradiert, obwohl sie eine gute Struktur aufweisen und resistent gegen Erosion sind. Eine Reihe von Konservierungsmassnahmen wurde in den 1920erJahren und wiederum nach 1972 eingefiihrt. Seit 1980 wurde auch die Aufforstung durch die Regierung stark gef6rdert.

Spatial analysis of potential soil erosion risks in welo region, ethiopia: a geomorphological evaluation

Abstract: Soil erosion risks are measured by means of several indices, such as rainfall erosivity, rainfall intensity, soil erodibility, and drainage density. Many of these parameters cannot be used for studies in developing countries because of a lack of the required data base. In such situations, slope can be used as a valuable index for two reasons: first, slope values can be computed from available maps or air photographs and thus the data base can be prepared, even if it did not previously exist; second, slope steepness directly governs the soil erosion processes, hence it is a good indicator of the potential risk of erosion. Erosion effectiveness of all fluvial processes varies according to the sine of the surface angle of slope. In the study area of the Welo Administrative Region of Ethiopia, seven classes of potential soil erosion risks are identified on the basis of the slope sine values. Broadly speaking, the areas of low erosion risk coincide with the eastern lowland, termed the Afar plains. Here, simple and inexpen- sive soil conservation measures are adequate to arrest further losses due to erosion. The western highlands, particularly those with elevations of more than 2,000 m asl entail higher risks. Here, the downslope component of gravitational acceleration is strong and this constantly initiates and rejuvenates processes of soil erosion. In these areas, immediate remedial measures are essential. RESUME Analyse spatiale de l'crosion possible des sols dans la rdgion de Welo en Ethiopie - Une e'valuation giomorphologique. Les risques d'erosion

Stream water quality in a mountain recreation area.

Abstract: This article reports the results of a study of recreation-related surface water pollution in a mountain recreation area. Water samples were obtained over summer seasons in and near heavily used public recreation sites of the Indian Peaks Wilderness area in Colorado, U.S.A. The samples were tested for various chemical and biological constituents and compared with samples from a watershed closed to recreation. The results indicated an inter-dependence of inorganic nutrient levels with stream flow. Highest values for suspended solids, total phosphorus, total organic carbon, and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations occurred during the early spring and summer runoff. Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations also decreased downstream in recreationally-affected watersheds and highest values occurred in the recreationally-controlled watershed. Alkalinity and pH were found to increase both downstream from recreation and as recreation increased through the summer season. Lead levels found in one watershed where vehicular traffic occurred in the past indicate retention of lead through time in these high-altitude ecosystems. Potential natural sources of lead and an apparent removal phenomena by reservoirs warrants further study in the recreationally-controlled watershed. Bacteria counts were highest during low stream flow, during intense precipitation events that "flush" the watershed, and during and after major holiday weekends when recrea- tion was at a maximum. Although results indicate no human body waste contamination of the surface waters, a variety of recrea- tionally-derived pollution was observed in the water. Water purification prior to drinking appears essential.

Geoecological factors influencing over-exploitation and land degradation in the Usambara mountains of northeastern Tanzania

Abstract: Over-exploitation of mountain resources in the Usambara Mountains has led to serious hazards, such as deforestation, soil erosion, flooding, sedimentation, and disturbance of the hydrological balance. External and internal forces influenced by geoecological factors have generated internal demographic pressure. The results are increasing pressure on marginal hill forests, firewood, and animal fodder, and decreasing soil fertility and, as a consequence, a low level of economic activity and a low standard of living. This has produced a general disturbance of the ecological balance and outmigration of young able persons from the Usambaras. This paper discusses some geoecological factors influencing over-utilization and land degradation of the Usambara Mountains. RESUME Facteurs geologiques qui influencent la surexploitation et la digradation des terres dans les monts Usambara au nord-est de la Tanzanie. La surexploitation des ressources naturelles dans les monts Usambara pr6sente des risques serieux tels que la d6forestation, I'&rosion du sol, les inondations, la s6dimentation, et la perturbation du bilan hydrologique. Des forces externes et internes, influenc6es par des facteurs geologiques, ont engendr6 une pression demographique interne. Cela signifie des contraintes accrues sur les forets en marge des montagnes pour la production de bois de chauffage et de fourrage pour le b6tail, et une baisse de la fertilit6 du sol, donc une activit" conomique restreinte et un bas niveau de vie. Cette situation a entrain6 une perturbation gen6rale de l'6quilibre 6cologique et une emigration des jeunes en Age de travailler. Cette &tude examine certains facteurs geologiques qui influencent la surexploitation et la degradation des terres dans les monts Usambara. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Geo6kologische Einflussfaktorenfiir Uebernutzung und Landzerst6rung der Usambara-Berge in Nordost-Tansania. Uebernutzung natfirlicher Gebirgsressourcen hat in den Usambara-Bergen zu ernsthaften Gefahren von Entwaldung, Bodenerosion, Ueberschwemmung und St6rung des hydrologischen Gleichgewichts geffihrt. Aeussere und innere Kriifte, die durch geodkologische Faktoren beeinflusst sind, haben internen demographischen Druck geschaffen, der sich auf marginale Hfigelwilder, auf Brennholz, Tierfutter und abnehmende Bodenfruchtbarkeit auswirkt. Als Folge davon resultiert eine geringe 6konomische Aktivitdit, ein tiefer Lebensstandart, eine Stdrung des 6kologischen Gleichgewichts und die Auswanderung der jungen, fiihigen Leute aus den Usambara-Bergen. Der vorliegende Artikel diskutiert einige geo6kologische Faktoren, welche Uebernutzung und Degradation der Usambara-Berge beeinflussen.

Tourist developments in the Kananaskis Valley area, Alberta, Canada, and the impact of the 1988 Winter Olympic Games.

Abstract: Recreational developments are occurring in the Rocky Mountains of Canada at an ever-accelerating pace. Kananaskis Country, in the Eastern Slopes region, was developed by the Province of Alberta on public land, using public funds, within a period of five years. It now contains three provincial parks and numerous recreational facilities. The awarding of the 1988 Winter Olympic Games to Calgary and the impacts of the development of sites for the downhill and Nordic ski events in Kananaskis Country have exacerbated landscape change. This paper describes the development and construction that has ensued and the positive and negative effects. Increased use has brought economic prosperity and has relieved pressure on adjacent national parks; however, the environmental impacts may endanger wildlife, especially bighorn sheep. The long-term implications and proposals for the future have yet to be assessed, but attention must be focused on the question of how much development is desirable and how it should be guided and controlled. RESUMP Le diveloppement touristique de la vallie du Kananaskis, Alberta, Canada, et l'impact desjeux Olympiques d'hiver de 1988. Le developpement touristique des Rocheuses canadiennes procede a un rythme acc616r6. La zone "Kananaskis Country", sur le versant oriental, a 6t6 amenag6e par la province d'Alberta sur des terres publiques et a l'aide de fonds publics, sur une p6riode de cinq ans. Cette zone comporte maintenant trois parcs provinciaux et de nombreux amenagements reserv6s aux loisirs. L'adjudication des jeux Olympiques d'hiver de 1988 h la ville de Calgary et l'impact de l'amenagement des sites pour les 6preuves de ski alpin et de ski nordique dans Kananaskis Country ont exacerb6 la modification du paysage. Cet article d6crit les travaux de mise en valeur et de construction qui ont suivi, ainsi que les effets positifs et n6gatifs. Un plus haut niveau d'utilisation a engendr6 une certaine prospirit6 c Olmsted et al., 1972; Bryan, 1973; Dansereau, 1975; Hvizdos and Hodgson, 1976; Nelson et al., 1979; Marsh, 1983). Data from the mountain national parks show that during the past 40-50 years tourism has increased nearly fifty-fold, creating continual pressure for increased access and more and better facilities (Kariel, 1984). The awarding of the 1988 Winter Olympic Games to Calgary is exerting new pressures for development on the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains and Banff National Park. Although most of the Olympic events will be held in Calgary, Kananaskis Country is the venue for the downhill and Nordic ski races. As a result, the town of Canmore, on the Trans-Canada Highway about 90 km west of Calgary, and at the northern border of Kananaskis Country, will experience increased tourism. 'Department of Geography, The University of Alberta, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada. 23019 Beil Avenue N.W., Calgary, Alberta T2L 1K6, Canada. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.152 on Sat, 26 Nov 2016 04:15:26 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 2 / MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT This paper focuses on present and future developments in Kananaskis Country and neighbouring Canmore, on the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains. This area, developed by the province of Alberta on public land, with public funds, illustrates the tremendous landscape changes that can take place in an area within a short time. KANANASKIS COUNTRY: THE CONCEPT AND ITS ORIGIN "Kananaskis Country" is a provincially owned and managed year-around, multiple-use recreation area on the Eastern Slope of the Rocky Mountains, adjacent to Banff National Park (Figure 1). Established in 1977, it contains three provincial parks: Peter Lougheed (formerly Kananaskis), Bow Valley, and Bragg Creek. It is 4,200 km2 in area and contains a variety of vegetation, many species of wildlife, and a diversity of terrain which lends itself to many recreational activities. The Kananaskis Valley was used by Indians for approximately 6,000 years prior to European contact. After the explorations of men such as James Sinclair in 1841 and Captain John Palliser in 1858, the valley was visited by gold seekers and railway surveyors. Subsequently, smallscale lumbering and mining for coal and other minerals occurred. From 1902 to 1930 much of this area was part of Banff National Park, but it was removed from the Park in order to permit hydroelectric and other resource developments. The entire area was managed by the Federal Government as Crown Forest until 1950, when it was transferred to the Province of Alberta. Until the 1970s it remained a backwater area, providing opportunities for random camping and other types of low-key recreation. But as Calgary's population exploded there was an overall increase in outdoor recreation, fueled by increased leisure time and greater affluence. Not only the amount, but also the type of use changed, with greater use by off-road vehicles in both winter and summer, and the growing popularity of RVs (recreational vehicles: caravans, camping units mounted on pick-up trucks, and mobile homes) (Oltmann, 1976; Brunton, 1977; More, 1986). The first major landscape change was the upgrading of the narrow, winding, gravelled Forestry Trunk Road, completed by the mid-1970s. In the face of much opposition, it was rebuilt and paved to become Highway 40, designed for 110 km/h (70 mph) traffic. While many opponents of the project recognized the need for an improved road, they felt that a lower standard perhaps 90 km/h (55 mph), which is the present speed limit would have been more suitable for recreational use and enjoyment (Kananaskis Action Committee, 1973). In 1973 the Environment Council of Alberta conducted major public hearings on "Land use and resource developme t in the Eastern Slopes". Public attitudes expressed in briefs and obtained through surveys strongly favoured environmental protection and recreational use over resource development (Alberta, ECA, 1974). The following year the Alberta Government identified the Kananaskis Valley as a prime recreational area, and declared its intention to establish Kananaskis Provincial Park. As planning proceeded, the provincial Cabinet directed that a major outdoor recreation region, involving a totally new concept and inclu ing the Park, be developed. In 1977, A Policyfor Resource Management of the Eastern Slopes (Alberta, Energy and Natural Resources, 1977) was published, and "Kananaskis Country" designated. The "Country" concept and objectives for the area evolved over a period of time. As summarized in the Integrated Resource Plan, The "Country" concept permits: The provision for normally incompatible recreation uses such as horse trails and all terrain vehicles ... The provision for controlled high service nodes such as service centres and overnight accommodation ... The potential for participation by private enterprise and the development of recreation facilities not normally provided by the public sector, such as alpine skiing and golf

Vegetation, soil, and land-use changes in jebel marra and other mountains in the republic of the sudan

Abstract: The two mountains of the Sudan, Jebel Marra and the Imatong Mountains, are defined, their altitudinal belts described, and the interplay between soil, vegetation, and land use is discussed and analysed. Relevant government policies and development strategies are described and their economic and ecological impacts examined. Existing research is reviewed and the national research organizations and strategies are assessed. Due to their relatively cooler weather, increased rainfall, and valuable timber, the two mountains have always attracted human settlement and "development projects". Environmental degradation, particularly hillside erosion, has increased with increasing population pressure and misuse of resources. Proper introduction and implementation of agro-forestry systems will maintain the soil and vegetation cover and are the only ecologically sound solution.

Flooding and Road Destruction in Eastern Nepal

Abstract: of the Sun Kosi east of Barabesi. It is unclear at the present time what happened in the Sun Kosi valley below Barabesi and Sun Kosi Bazaar; perhaps the flood waters simply continued down the river. However, in view of the morphology of the region (including the sharp bend that the Sun Kosi makes as it joins the Bhote Kosi), past episodes of flooding in the Himalaya, and the destruction caused downstream, it is most probable that the Bhote Kosi was temporarily dammed by the mudflow debris which spilled into the north-south flowing Bhote Kosi-Sun Kosi; the Bhote Kosi then backed up forming a lake behind the dam; and eventually the dam burst open, releasing the backedup waters. In any case, the result was a large flood that totally destroyed over 18 km of the Arniko Highway between the towns of Barabesi and Balephi. The inlet to the Lamasangu Hydroelectric Plant, including a dam across the Sun Kosi, was also lost. Smaller landslips along the Arniko Highway, resulting from the same rainstorm, have partially destroyed another 50 km of the road. Figure 1 shows the location of the rivers, villages, landslides, and debris dams.