Showing papers in "Mountain Research and Development in 2001"
1,361 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a geographic information system (GIS) and a remote sensing approach with field verification to monitor land use and land cover changes that occurred from 1957 to 1995 in the Dembecha area, Gojam, in the Northwestern highlands of Ethiopia.
Abstract: Land use and land cover changes that occurred from 1957 to 1995 in the Dembecha area, Gojam, in the Northwestern highlands of Ethiopia, were monitored using a geographic information system (GIS) and a remote sensing approach with field verification. The study area covers 27,100 ha and is representative of Gojam, which is known for its cereal production and export of surplus to major cities of the country. However, given the age-old tradition of clearing increasingly steeper land for cultivation and the lack of appropriate land use policies, productivity is currently heavily threatened by soil degradation. The results show that the natural forest cover declined from 27% in 1957 to 2% in 1982 and 0.3% in 1995. The total natural forest cleared between 1957 and 1995 amounts to 7259 ha. This is 99% of the forest cover that existed in 1957. On the other hand, cultivated land increased from 39% in 1957 to 70% in 1982 and 77% in 1995. The greatest expansion occurred between 1957 and 1982 (about 78%) and ...
422 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new classification of 15 relief patterns at the global scale combines a relief roughness indicator and the maximum altitude at a resolution of 30′ × 30′ is proposed.
Abstract: A new classification of 15 relief patterns at the global scale combines a relief roughness indicator and the maximum altitude at a resolution of 30′ × 30′. Classical geographic terms have been retained but assigned to fixed relief roughness (RR = maximum minus minimum elevation per cell divided by half the cell length in meters/kilometer, or ‰) and altitude boundaries. Plains (33.2 Mkm2 of currently nonglaciated land surface) correspond to subhorizontal terrain (RR 20‰). Plateaus (16.8 Mkm2), with mean elevations between 500 and 6000 m, have a medium degree of roughness (RR from 5 to 40‰). Mountains (33.3 Mkm2) are differentiated from hills by their higher mean elevation (>500 m) and from plateaus by their greater roughness (>20‰ then >40‰) in each elevation class. Accordingly, Tibet and ...
303 citations
TL;DR: The future of Swiss alpine winter tourism must be reassessed in view of global climate change in order to determine possible strategies for overall development of mountain regions as mentioned in this paper, and the future of ski areas at higher altitudes should be considered.
Abstract: The future of Swiss alpine winter tourism must be reassessed in view of global climate change in order to determine possible strategies for overall development of mountain regions. At present, 85% of all Swiss ski areas still have sufficient snow cover. A 300-m rise of the snow line, however, would reduce this to about 63%. As a consequence, skiers will expect more artificial snow, go on winter holidays less often, and concentrate on ski areas at higher altitudes. On the supply side, climate change will be used to justify increased use of artificial snow and advances into areas above 3000 m. This raises a variety of new problems, both economic and ecological. Developments in the Swiss snow industry indicate the rise of 2 distinct classes of tourist resorts. Climate change may increase economic pressure in terms of capital concentration and division into “winners” and “losers.” Although global climate change certainly has an influence on tourism, it is not the only factor that determines the condi...
174 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the process and impact of farmland abandonment in the Camero Viejo (northwestern Iberian System) are described, and the geomorphological evolution of terraced fields after cultivation was given up.
Abstract: Since the 1950s, the Spanish Mediterranean mountains have become a marginal territory, with few inhabitants and limited economic activity. As a consequence, significant land use changes (farmland abandonment, development of extensive cattle rearing, and reforestation) have taken place, resulting in landscape degradation and new hydromorphological processes. In this article, the process and impact of farmland abandonment in the Camero Viejo (northwestern Iberian System) are described. The authors also studied the geomorphological evolution of terraced fields after cultivation was given up. Runoff rates and sediment yield in abandoned and grazed terraces were measured using a rainfall simulator. Results show that the speed and intensity of the hydrological and erosional response increased if plots were grazed intensively. The study demonstrates that new land management systems in the Camero Viejo, in particular extensive cattle grazing, have generated additional source areas of sediments.
146 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors address forest cover change in a community in the mountains of western Honduras between 1987 and 1996, 9.77 km2 of land was reforested and only 7.48 km2 was deforested.
Abstract: Tropical deforestation poses a threat to ecological sustainability and socioeconomic development in many parts of the world. Information on forest transformations is especially pertinent in sensitive ecological zones such as mountainous regions, where forest cover protects steep slopes and thin soils from erosion. Such areas are frequently unsuitable for agriculture, but inhabitants may have few alternatives to meet subsistence needs. Understanding the relationship between human behavior and forest change poses a major challenge for development projects, policy makers, and environmental organizations that aim to improve forest management. Knowledge of the areal extent of forest cover and the processes of change represents an integral step, but in many areas of the globe, these processes are still relatively unknown. This study addresses forest cover change in a community in the mountains of western Honduras. Between 1987 and 1996, 9.77 km2 of land was reforested and only 7.48 km2 was deforested, ...
140 citations
TL;DR: The status of alien plants in the alpine and subalpine areas of the Australian Alps is assessed in this paper, where the number of alien species has increased following the region's use by non-indigenous Australians over the last 170 years.
Abstract: The current status of alien plants in the alpine and subalpine areas of the Australian Alps is assessed in this article. The number of alien species has increased following the region's use by nonindigenous Australians over the last 170 years. One hundred and seventy-five alien plant taxa have been recorded above 1500 m in the Australian Alps. These taxa are mainly perennials from Europe, Asia, and the Americas. They are predominantly associated with disturbance and are categorized here according to the types of human activities with which they are associated. There are roadside or path weeds (78% of species), resort weeds (58%), grazing weeds (25%), and rehabilitation weeds (11%). Just over 20% of the alien taxa have become naturalized in the region. Diversity, distribution, and biology of the species are evaluated along with the threats they pose to the conservation of the region.
83 citations
TL;DR: In many countries, decentralization aims to achieve one of the central aspirations of equitable political governance: humans should have a say in their own affairs as discussed by the authors, which is not surprising given the ubiquity of decentralization initiatives.
Abstract: As a new strategy to conserve resources, decentralization of political authority has displaced earlier coercive conservation policies in many countries. More than 60 countries claim to have decentralized forest control. In these countries, communities are supposed to be involved in joint strategies to conserve forests. The story is similar for other resources such as wildlife, water, and watersheds. Decentralization is becoming ubiquitous even for provision of services, development programs, health and education. This is not surprising. Decentralization aims to achieve one of the central aspirations of equitable political governance: humans should have a say in their own affairs. Given the ubiquity of decentralization initiatives, 2 questions require critical attention: (1) What accounts for decentralization of political authority toward local decision makers? Voluntary relinquishing of power seems to fly in the face of expected state behavior. (2) Do the actual effects of decentralization polici...
73 citations
TL;DR: This article reviewed two previous soil erosion research projects in the Ecuadorian Andes involving field observations and small-plot rainfall simulation experiments and provided examples of erosion-related landscape connections at the drainage basin scale.
Abstract: Accelerated soil erosion is a common and environmentally destructive consequence of development, especially in mountain regions. Soil erosion is of special concern in agricultural lands, but agriculture is only one of many development activities that greatly accelerates soil erosion processes. Road building, trail use, excavation, extractive activities, and construction also can cause severe soil erosion. Soil conservation technologies are relatively simple and well known, but often they are not applied where they could be most effective because the connections between different elements of the landscape (eg, roads and cultivated fields) are not well understood. This paper reviews two previous soil erosion research projects in the Ecuadorian Andes involving field observations and small-plot rainfall simulation experiments and provides examples of erosion-related landscape connections at the drainage basin scale. In light of the important influence of roads, trails, and abandoned farmlands on soil...
70 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a comparative review of the weather and climate processes and phenomena that characterize the New Zealand Southern Alps and European Alps is provided, including their dynamic and thermal effects on airflow, such as the foehn and nor'wester.
Abstract: A comparative review is provided of the weather and climate processes and phenomena that characterize the New Zealand Southern Alps and European Alps. The general climate conditions and atmospheric circulation features that affect the 2 mountain regions are assessed. Interaction of the mountains with synoptic weather systems is described, including their dynamic and thermal effects on airflow, such as the foehn and nor'wester. The different orientations of the mountain barriers are seen as creating differences between the 2 regions, including the high frequency of cyclogenesis south of the European Alps and the marked orographic effect on fronts along the east coast of New Zealand. Other distinctive features of the regional wind field are described and explained. Mountain effects on rainfall amounts and distribution are also briefly covered, including the very high precipitation received on the west coast of the New Zealand Southern Alps and the more even spread of precipitation north and south o...
53 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors performed a study on phenology and growth form distribution in an alpine pasture of Garhwal Himalaya from 1988 to 1998, where one hundred seventy-one species were recorded and classified as 5 different growth forms.
Abstract: Studies on phenology and growth form distribution in an alpine pasture of Garhwal Himalaya were undertaken from 1988 to 1998. One hundred seventy-one species were recorded and classified as 5 different growth forms. These species were also classified as early- and late-growing type, on the basis of initiation of their aerial sprouts. Cushion-forming forbs generally emerge as the season commences, that is, immediately after snowmelt. However, the vegetative growth of grasses and other forbs peaked randomly after arrival of the monsoon. Phenophases of different species at higher elevations respond to the availability of the soil moisture and nutrient regimes as well as to temperature and different photoperiodic induction. The spectrum of life forms in the region indicated a hemicryptophytic and geophytic plant climate.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed trends for three integral components of mountain farming systems (foodgrain crops, horticultural and cash crops, and livestock) using time series data published by national governments in 5 Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) countries.
Abstract: In order to better understand the state of mountain agriculture, this article analyzes trends for 3 integral components of mountain farming systems—production of foodgrain crops, horticultural and cash crops, and livestock—using time series data published by national governments in 5 Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) countries. Results show that, although the area under foodgrain crops has not increased, their yields have not declined as much as is often perceived. In some cases, crop productivity has increased. This evidently implies that mountain farmers are maintaining productivity of foodgrain crops for food security reasons. Results also suggest increasing trends in crop diversification toward horticultural and cash crops. Present trends in rapid expansion of areas under these crops indicate the growing importance of horticultural and cash crops in mountain farming systems and the household economy across the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. These trends have positive implications for the future development of mountain agriculture in terms of harnessing mountain niches and comparative advantages. In the livestock sector, there is a general decline in the cattle population across the HKH. Trends indicate the possibility of greater development of smallholder dairies with improved buffaloes in the Himalayan subtropics. The number of stall-fed buffaloes and goats is rising with increased use of external inputs and purchased feed, thus contributing positively to food security and nutrition in mountain households.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the dynamics of forest change along riparian corridors within the newly established Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area (MBCA) of eastern Nepal, based on a comparison of remote sensing data over a 20-year interval.
Abstract: Low elevation riparian forests found within the Middle Hills of Nepal are both essential biological habitats and important resources for local subsistence farmers. Forming networks of habitat patches within the primarily agricultural matrix of the Middle Hills, these forests are repositories of a rich biological diversity. Dynamics of forest change along riparian corridors were investigated within the newly established Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area (MBCA) of eastern Nepal, based on a comparison of remote sensing data over a 20-year interval. Multispectral analysis and a supervised classification of Landsat TM (1992) and Landsat MSS (1972) data estimate approximately 7000 ha of low elevation riparian forests within the study area. Change detection analysis estimates based on the respective supervised classifications reveal little significant change in extent of the tropical and subtropical zone riparian forests. More impact was evident toward the upper elevational limits of the study area. A 4% (approximately 300 ha) loss of cover within areas previously designated as forest is estimated. For all areas in the study area, a net loss of forest of 11% is estimated. Land use is shown to be highly dynamic, with significant internal trading between land use classes. The important role of riparian corridors in biodiversity conservation within the Middle Hills of east Nepal is discussed. Further research on biodiversity within these patches and a specific recognition of the value of remnant riparian forests within the landscape and rural economy are required if conservation goals for the eastern Nepal Himalaya are to be met.
TL;DR: The European Alps (Alps) and Southern Alps of New Zealand (Southern Alps) are both high mountain ranges formed by the collision of tectonic plates as discussed by the authors, which produced complex lithological and structural patterns associated with the development of a series of overthrusted nappes.
Abstract: The European Alps (Alps) and Southern Alps of New Zealand (Southern Alps) are both high mountain ranges formed by the collision of tectonic plates. The Alps resulted from collision of the African and European Plates, which produced complex lithological and structural patterns associated with the development of a series of overthrusted nappes. In contrast, the plate margin deformation that created the Southern Alps produced a relatively simple structural and lithological pattern dominated by a single right lateral oblique slip fault zone known as the Alpine Fault. Strong contrasts are also apparent in the contemporary rates of landscape development. The Alps currently experience modest rates of uplift and denudation because deformation along the plate boundary has slowed. High rates of compressional strain along the Alpine Fault in New Zealand result in very high rates of uplift. These processes and the position of the mountain range across the prevailing atmospheric westerly circulation system re...
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a demarcation of urbanized zones in the Alps based on the French method of European functional urban areas (EFUAs), which is necessary to demarcate urbanised zones according to functional criteria.
Abstract: The European Alps are among the world's most densely populated mountain regions. To date, towns have played a subordinate role within this area. Due to the marginal position of Alpine towns within national urban systems, they do not constitute an interrelated urban system, and no primary center exists. The current degree of urbanization cannot be measured by adding up the population of the towns in the Alps. Instead, it is necessary to demarcate urbanized zones according to functional criteria. This article presents a demarcation of urbanized zones in the Alps based on the French method of European functional urban areas (EFUAs). As elsewhere in Europe, urbanized zones are expanding and gaining importance under the influence of structural changes in the economy. At the same time, the shift to post-Fordist production and regulation is leading to more pronounced internationalization of medium-sized and small towns as well as conurbations. Census data on demography and commuting collected between 19...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of recent developments in Europe concerned with the ecolabeling of hydropower, and discuss the lessons learned from this large-scale economic and ecological experiment in the industrialized world.
Abstract: Hydropower is a renewable source of energy of which ecological benefits include very low average greenhouse gas emissions. As a result of dams, however, more than 20% of all freshwater fish species are now considered threatened or endangered. Such negative ecological impacts are a focus of broad public concern in Alpine regions where hydropower production is most intense. The liberalization of electricity markets now provides an economic rationale for selling hydropower as green energy. This offers an opportunity to improve the ecological performance of hydropower plants. The lessons learned from this large-scale economic and ecological experiment in the industrialized world might be important in other mountain regions where hydropower production is being developed or needs ecological upgrading. As a step in this direction, the present paper gives an overview of recent developments in Europe concerned with the ecolabeling of hydropower. Different initiatives for green hydropower in liberalized el...
TL;DR: In this paper, the human dimension of development processes in high mountain regions regularly escapes appropriate assessment due to a lack of applicable methods, and it is difficult to substantiate the position of mountain societies within nation-states.
Abstract: The human dimension of development processes in high mountain regions regularly escapes appropriate assessment due to a lack of applicable methods. Comparative data are lacking, and it is difficult to substantiate the position of mountain societies within nation-states. In view of the International Year of Mountains, consideration should be given to the focus of research and the need for comparative approaches. Using examples from case studies in South Asian high mountain regions, this article introduces an approach that applies widely known human development indicators to different regional levels. Evaluating the results and interpreting the dimensions of these indicators reveal pressing problems in mountain research as well as fields for further investigation.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors estimated the aboveground net primary productivity of 5 seminatural Andean pastures: 2 paramo grassland plots (430 and 512 g/m2/y), 2 plots in cleared montane forest (70 and 110 g /m 2 /y), and 1 in an intensive agricultural setting (1359 g/ m2/Y).
Abstract: We estimated the aboveground net primary productivity of 5 seminatural Andean pastures: 2 paramo grassland plots (430 and 512 g/m2/y), 2 plots in cleared montane forest (70 and 110 g/m2/y), and 1 in an intensive agricultural setting (1359 g/m2/y). The paramo and montane forest plots demonstrated very low productivity compared with the lowest altitude plot. The productivity of the montane forest plots was very low because overgrazing had led to the formation of dense Azorella pedunculata mats of no pasture value. The inherent productivity of paramo tussock grasses, the dominant plants in the two highest sites, is constrained by the retention of dead leaves, which are periodically burned away by farmers (but probably too frequently for long-term benefit). It is unlikely that montane forest and paramo plots could sustain higher levels of grazing, even with the addition of fertilizer, and efforts would be more appropriately focused on increasing the yields of lower altitude pastures.
TL;DR: A special Support Program for Mountain Farmers was established in the early 1970s as mentioned in this paper, with particular attention to ways and means of supporting the agricultural sector and to measures aiming to preserve and manage land resources sustainably under the difficult production conditions in mountains.
Abstract: Regional development in mountain areas and the impact of development on landscapes have been focuses of economic and regional policies in Austria for many decades due to the country's very mountainous topography. A special Support Program for Mountain Farmers was established in the early 1970s. Since the late 1970s, support for regional economies has been defined from a bottom-up perspective. Meanwhile, measures designed in accordance with agricultural and regional policies have become an important component of Austria's mountain policy, with significant implications for sustainable regional development. Assessment of mountain agriculture in Austria has been carried out with particular attention to ways and means of supporting the agricultural sector and to measures aiming to preserve and manage land resources sustainably under the difficult production conditions in mountains. At the core of mountain policy is the valuation of nonmarketable goods, which are increasingly referred to as “rural amen...
TL;DR: In this article, a differentiated approach to hydropower development in Nepal is discussed, and three scenarios that have received increasing attention in recent years are presented for implementation in a wider South Asian context.
Abstract: An adequate and reliable supply of energy is a prerequisite for development. In Nepal, forests and water are the two major indigenous energy resources. Forests are being overexploited in many parts of the country, mainly for fuelwood, whereas water resources are underutilized with regard to their capacity to generate hydroelectricity. Nepal might be able to control forest degradation by adopting a differentiated approach to hydropower development. The prospects and the risks of such development are discussed here, and three scenarios that have received increasing attention in recent years are presented for implementation in a wider South Asian context.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted an empirical study from 1996 through 1999 consisting of interviews with business people, workers, and officials from governmental and nongovernmental organizations in the Nepalese urban labor market.
Abstract: Nepal is witnessing a transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to one where nonagricultural income opportunities are increasingly important. The significance of wage labor in (semi)industrial production and in the service sector is growing rapidly. Along with these changes, there is increasing labor migration as part of the population seeks work in labor markets in urban areas, both in Nepal and India or further abroad. Within the Nepalese urban labor market, carpet production evolved as one of the most prominent industries during the early 1990s, experiencing high annual growth rates. Yet this “gold rush” was followed by a dramatic decline in the mid and late 1990s that severely affected the industry and its workers. In order to analyze these processes, the author conducted an empirical study from 1996 through 1999 consisting of interviews with business people, workers, and officials from governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The study showed that declining income opportunities...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored endogenous development as a strategy for Swiss mountain communities and found that the main benefits of endogenous development are within the social and cultural realm: it raises people's awareness of local problems, promotes community bonds, and fosters local identity.
Abstract: This paper explores endogenous development as a strategy for Swiss mountain communities. Endogenous development refers to self-determined participatory development based on regional needs and the use of endogenous potentials. Data from 2 case studies, Urnasch and Schamserberg, show that endogenous development cannot be detached from its national and global context and that local initiatives evolve as a continuous interplay between internal and external factors. The main benefits of endogenous development are within the social and cultural realm: it raises people's awareness of local problems, promotes community bonds, and fosters local identity. These effects are important because they increase the quality of life. Indirectly, they can have an effect on economic development because they motivate people to stay in their communities and become involved in local activities. Regional policy should thus pay more attention to endogenous development by promoting participation, local initiative, and soci...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared the hydrology of the Alps in Switzerland and New Zealand and found that precipitation and runoff are much higher in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, whereas the proportion and influence of snow to rainfall is greater in the Swiss Alps.
Abstract: The hydrology of the Alps in Switzerland and New Zealand is compared. Similarities and differences in topographical features, climate and weather characteristics, precipitation, and streamflow are identified. Precipitation and runoff are much higher in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, whereas the proportion and influence of snow to rainfall is greater in the Swiss Alps. Despite differences related to continental versus island characteristics and different altitudinal ranges, both Alps are important for producing water resources for downstream regions. Swiss evaporation data were used to improve knowledge of evaporation in the Southern Alps. Comparison of water volumes involved in the hydrological cycle highlighted the fact that the Southern Alps are one of the highest water-yielding regions of the world's temperate zones.
TL;DR: New Zealand is a very mountainous country with sparsely populated mountain lands, which are held in private ownership and used in pastoral production, the majority of which is state owned.
Abstract: New Zealand is a very mountainous country with sparsely populated mountain lands. While large tracts are held in private ownership and used in pastoral production, the majority is state owned. New Zealand's protected natural area system encompasses the Southern Alps/Ka Tiritiri o te Moana and the North Island peaks, with the highest mountains in the country within Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, a World Heritage Site. Thirty percent of New Zealand's land area falls within the protected natural area system, managed by the Department of Conservation (DOC). Within these mountain lands, there is a range of mountain recreation opportunities including skiing, alpine climbing, hiking, wilderness fishing, and hunting. Aircraft-based activities, such as scenic overflights, heli-hiking, and glacier skiing, dominate some mountain regions. Ski fields represent small enclaves of high-level facility and infrastructure development within an environment that is largely unmodified wilderness. To facilitate high-...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the landscape of the South Island High Country in New Zealand and provide an overview of its landscape history, identifying and reviewing trends and issues in landscape change.
Abstract: These lines by J. K. Baxter capture something of the ambivalent role played by the South Island High Country in the collective psyche, science, and public policy of New Zealand. As Kevin O'Connor, Professor of Range Management, put it in 1993: “Most people in New Zealand would be disconcerted if their mountain skylines to familiar landscapes were removed. Nevertheless, the influence of New Zealand mountains on its national consciousness does not appear to have great significance in policy…” Nowhere is this more apparent than in regard to landscape issues. This article focuses on the landscape of the South Island High Country. We first define the High Country, describe its distinctive landscapes, and provide an overview of its landscape history. We then identify and review trends and issues in landscape change.
TL;DR: In the absence of adequate formal research, this extension service relies on participatory methods to develop messages adapted to the new situation as discussed by the authors, which makes use of a participatory smallholder research methodology known as participatory technology development.
Abstract: Shepherds on horseback tend sheep on green mountain pastures: an idyllic image of Kyrgyzstan, a mountainous country in the heart of Asia, that hides the harsh reality of life after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The radical change from a planned economy to a free market economy caused an almost complete breakdown of Kyrgyzstan's industry and interrupted trade flows. Today, many families in rural areas depend on subsistence agriculture, living below the poverty line. Kyrgyzstan has formed a new agricultural advisory service to render assistance to rural families in this difficult transition period. In the absence of adequate formal research, this extension service relies on participatory methods to develop messages adapted to the new situation. It makes use of a participatory smallholder research methodology known as participatory technology development.
TL;DR: In this article, the existence of the black tent in its easternmost distribution has rarely been discussed in detail, whereas an arid high mountain climate predominates on the Tibetan Plateau.
Abstract: Black tents serve as mobile housing for a majority of the nomadic groups in a belt that stretches from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The existence of the black tent in its easternmost distribution has rarely been discussed in detail. In most regions, the requirements of the tent are determined by hot, arid climatic conditions, whereas an arid high mountain climate predominates on the Tibetan Plateau. The eastern part receives precipitation of over 500 mm annually. This raises questions about how Tibetan nomads have adapted the black tent to their specific needs and to environmental conditions. Using examples from a region in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, these questions are examined through descriptions of tent variations, construction, interior, choice of location for pitching the tent, and the strategies of tent dwellers to improve protection from cold and rain.
TL;DR: The history of the Yaluzangbu River since the Eocene is established here based on geomorphological and tectonic studies as discussed by the authors, which includes the formation of the main course along the suture before the Miocene and establishment of downstream course and major tributaries along strike-slip faulting in theMiocene.
Abstract: The Yaluzangbu River, the largest river on the Tibetan Plateau, becomes the Brahmaputra when it flows into India. New fieldwork and map analysis show that the fluvial landforms and landform evolution of the river are controlled by the tectonic structures of the southern plateau. The history of the Yaluzangbu River since the Eocene is established here based on geomorphological and tectonic studies. It includes the formation of the main course along the suture before the Miocene and establishment of downstream course and major tributaries along strike-slip faulting in the Miocene. Also noted are the formation of alternations of wide sections and gorges, gentle and steep hydraulic gradient intervals, and deposition and erosion channel stretches along the river by normal faulting and grabens since the Pliocene.
TL;DR: A farm-household optimization model was used to assess the current and changing competitiveness of milk production on the coast (Arequipa and Lima) and in the highlands (Cajamarca).
Abstract: In Peru, strong growth in urban demand for industrially processed dairy products has induced a rapid increase in milk production along the coast but not so much in the Andean highlands, where an increase in milk production would create the greatest benefits. A farm–household optimization model was used to assess the current and changing competitiveness of milk production on the coast (Arequipa and Lima) and in the highlands (Cajamarca). Results show that large farms on the coast, particularly near Lima, are currently the most profitable. However, the high milk prices in Lima are likely to fall because of local market saturation and reduced competition among regional milk buyers. In contrast, milk prices in Arequipa and Cajamarca are expected to rise as a result of increased milk collection by milk processors since milk production costs in these regions are lower and there is a strong incentive to increasingly substitute expensive imported milk powder with locally produced evaporated milk. Improve...