Showing papers in "Public Administration Quarterly in 2011"

What Constitutes Effective Citizen Participation in Local Government? Views from City Stakeholders

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Citizen participation in local government has been advocated as a way to enhance communication between government and citizens, build public support for local government goals, and develop public trust in government (Wang, 2001). However, research has shown increased citizen input can alternatively lead to a variety of perceived negative consequences such as increased staff work load, additional resource allocation, increased levels of public scrutiny, negative media coverage and increased levels of apathy or distrust of government (Callahan, 2002). Thus not all participation efforts are equal in terms of their impact or outcomes. In considering the nature and scope of citizen participation, it is imperative to have some basis for understanding what constitutes effectiveness. Arguments in favor of citizen participation are rooted in normative theory, and as a result, discussions of what constitutes "effective" participation are likewise normatively-based. Yet we should be equally (if not more) concerned with how the stakeholders of participation--practitioners, elected officials, and citizens--understand effective citizen participation. This article advances our understanding of citizen participation efforts in local government by offering a multi-dimensional conceptualization of effective citizen participation as articulated by those most directly involved in the process: elected officials, local government staff, and citizens. Perceptions of citizen participation in the local government budget process were captured through a series of forty telephone interviews in four cities across North Carolina. In addition to asking what key stakeholder groups mean by "effective" citizen participation, we also explore where these understandings converge and diverge. In other words, we examine to what extent expectations among the groups are different or similar. FRAMING CITIZEN PARTICIPATION Citizen participation in government is fundamental, as is the dispute over the extent and means participation. Daniel P. Monyihan (1969) argued that the maximum feasible participation goals of early anti-poverty efforts had actually resulted in maximum feasible misunderstanding. The experience of Community Action Programs in the 1960s and the controversy over how to define and implement the idea of participation by social program recipients led to a series of influential articles debating the basis for participation, which was widely interpreted at the time as a way to provide empowerment for low-income or minority populations (see, for example, Strange, 1972; Krause, 1968; Van Til & Van Til, 1970). Current debates are no longer focused on class and power discussions prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s. In fact, there seems to be widespread agreement in the field of public administration, as well as popular support for, the idea of creating more avenues to develop and foster citizen participation in local government (King, Feltey, & Susel, 1998; Bingham, Nabatchi, & O'Leary, 2005). There are now a multitude of resources available for designing citizen participation processes. (1) There is also a substantial amount written on civic attitudes toward government decisionmaking, rife with assumptions that participatory processes have the power to change these attitudes (Gastil and Levine, 2005). Of course the idea of public participation is appealing, but perhaps more complicated than we imagine. Skelcher (2007) suggests we argue for democratic processes often without understanding if they actually improve public service performance. However, to understand if democratic processes actually improve public service performance, we need to define what we mean by improving performance; we need a definition of effectiveness. We find that a number of researchers are trying to define effectiveness, but none take their cue from stakeholders within the process itself. Sherry Arnstein's classic ladder of citizen participation (1969) shapes much of discussion of participatory processes. …

Implementation of Financial Condition Analysis in Local Government

Abstract: One of the core objectives of financial reporting in local government is to provide information on financial position and condition of an organization. Financial position is accomplished when unqualified annual financial statements are provided to stakeholders at fiscal year end. Two additional steps are required, however, before interpretations can be made concerning the financial condition of a local government. Ratio analysis is conducted to evaluate financial relationships, and comparative analysis is used for building context. When the decision is made in local government to analyze, interpret, and communicate financial condition to elected officials, the next logical inquiry is to explore what management practices facilitate financial condition analysis and how do elected officials use the results for making policy decisions. This article presents three case studies in North Carolina, documenting lessons learned on transitioning from financial position to condition in local government. INTRODUCTION One of the core financial reporting objectives in local government is to provide users with information on the financial position and condition of an organization (GASB, 1987). The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) responded to this objective in 1999 with the passage of Statement No. 34, Basic Financial Statements-and Management's Discussion and Analysis-for State and Local Governments, expanding the financial reporting model to include fund-level and government-wide financial statements.1 Two of the seven purposes of the expanded reporting model as articulated by the GASB are to help users determine whether the government's overall financial position has improved or deteriorated and to help users make better financial comparisons between governments when analyzing financial condition (GASB, 1999). Mead (2002) concluded that the new reporting model does strengthen a government's ability to provide comprehensive information on financial position. He hedged, however, on financial condition, stating that additional analysis is often needed to assess fiscal strength. One of the main purposes of embracing an approach to financial condition analysis in local government is to provide elected officials, who possess the ultimate fiduciary responsibility of the organization, with information on a government's ability to meet its ongoing financial, service, and capital obligations based on the status of resource flow and stock as interpreted from annual financial statements (Rivenbark, Roenigk, and Allison, 2010). When information on financial condition is provided to elected officials, the next logical inquiry in local government is to explore implementation outcomes. We begin this article with an overview of four models available to help local officials move from financial position to condition. We then offer three cases conducted in North Carolina on presenting elected officials with information on financial condition at fiscal year end, concluding with lessons learned on transitioning from financial position to condition in local government. APPROACHES TO FINANCIAL CONDITION ANALYSIS Analyzing the financial condition of any organization is complex-public or private. One aspect of this complexity is that financial statements are designed to report on resource flow (operating statement) for a given time period, and on resource stock (balance sheet) at a point in time. There also are numerous financial dimensions that align with flow and stock, along with numerous financial indicators to measure each dimension. For example, Kloha, Weissert, and Kleine (2005) found that state officials providing financial condition oversight for their respective local governments used approximately 174 indicators in various forms to monitor fiscal stress, ranging from one indicator in Alaska to thirty in Michigan.2 Another aspect of this complexity is the need for contextual data for interpreting the results of the financial indicators, including how they change over time and how they compare against industry standards or results from other organizations. …

The Young and Restless: Generation Y in the Nonprofit Workforce

Abstract: This article was originally presented at the 2009 Southeast Regional Conference for Public Administration where it was recognized with the W.H. Collins award as the outstanding doctoral student paper of the conference. Public, private and nonprofit managers may face problems in attracting and retaining a young, educated workforce, as Generation Y employees (those born between the late 1970's and early 1990's) value compensation more highly than previous generations in choosing employers. This may explain why young people are leaving positions more frequently than in the past (Cornelius, Corvington, and Rusega, 2008; Smith, 2008; Terjesen and Frey, 2008). Generation Y employees may present special challenges to nonprofit managers as nonprofit pay tends to be low. In fact, human resource suggestions tell nonprofit managers to focus on enhancing the non-pecuniary rewards of nonprofit work. These management suggestions are a result of nonprofit research on the motivations of nonprofit employees, who are thought to 'donate' their labor and accept lower wages, because of the intrinsic returns they receive from nonprofit employment (A. Preston, 1989; Weisbrod, 1983). Conducting research on wage differentials of Generation Y employees can help practitioners better understand how they are compensating this particular group before implementing human resource suggestions. Additionally, previous research on wage differentials has not focused on young, educated employees so it is not clear whether pay gaps between nonprofit and for profit workers are large in this segment of the population (Lanfranchi and Narch, 2006; Leete, 2001). The first section of this paper presents an overview of survey findings on young employees that served as the catalyst for this research. The second section reviews previous empirical work exploring nonprofit, for profit wage differentials. In the remaining sections, using the 2001-2006 Census Bureaus' American Community Survey I use pooled cross section regression to compare the wage differentials of nonprofit and for profit Generation Y employees. This article contributes to scholarly and practitioner oriented discourse on how to structure compensation practices for young, educated employees, for which little empirical work has been conducted. For nonprofit managers, understanding how young, educated employees are being compensated will help better tailor their compensation practices and create incentives that are integral to both the attraction and retention of Generation Y employees (Mesch and Rooney, 2008). SURVEY FINDINGS OF WHAT MATTERS TO GENERATION Y EMPLOYEES In a 2007 survey conducted by the Young Nonprofit Professionals Network, 45% of nonprofit employees stated that they did not intend to work in the nonprofit sector in their next position (C. Preston, 2007). A 2008 survey of young nonprofit employees reinforced these findings, as 69% of nonprofit employees reported feeling underpaid in their current positions and 64% reported that they had financial concerns about committing to a career in the nonprofit sector (Cornelius et. al., 2008). These concerns are especially strong for people of color as this same survey finds they "are more concerned with committing to the nonprofit sector because of financial issues than whites" (Cornelius et. al., 2008, p. 23). Additionally, a recent survey report indicates that compensation is one of the most important factors for Generation Y employees when considering potential employers (Yahoo! HotJobs/Robert Half International, 2008; Smith, 2008). In a national survey of Generation Y employees, salary, benefits, and opportunities for career growth and advancement are the three most important job considerations (out of 11) (Yahoo! HotJobs/Robert Half International. 2008). Another report ranks compensation as the number one way employers can attract Generation Y employees (Smith, 2008). EXISTING THEORIES OF NONPROFIT COMPENSATION Nonprofit employees place more emphasis on the intrinsic rewards they receive from their jobs than for profit employees (Light, 2002; Light 2003; Mirvis and Hackett, 1983). …

Going beyond the Work Arrangement: The Crucial Role of Supervisor Support

Abstract: Employees in North America are subjected to the daily pressures and challenges of trying to balance the often competing demands of work and personal life. Men and women play a multiplicity of roles including employee, spouse, friend, volunteer as well as caregiver to both their children and parents (that is, the sandwich generation). The result of not balancing work and life demands effectively manifests itself as work-life conflict and there is extensive support for the proposition that work-life conflict has negative consequences for both employee and employer. From the employee perspective, high levels of work-life conflict have been associated with poor physical health (e.g., Higgins, Duxbury, & Johnson, 2004; Madsen, 2003), a variety of psychological symptoms such as depression (e.g., Hammer, Cullen, Neal, Sinclair, & Shafiro, 2005; Roxburgh, 2004) and psychological distress (e.g., Burke & Greenglass, 1999; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999) as well as marital dissatisfaction (e.g., MacEwen & Barling, 1994; Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996) and substance abuse (Frone, Russell, & Barnes, 1996; Frone, 2000). Employers also have experienced negative repercussions of work-life conflict in the form of lower job satisfaction (e.g., Anderson, Coffey, & Byerly, 2002; Boles, Howard & Donofrio, 2001); lower organizational commitment (e.g., Netemeyer, et al., 1996; Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness, 1999) and higher turnover intentions (e.g., Anderson, et al., 2002; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Collins, 2001). A number of factors increase our confidence in the finding that work-life conflict is deleterious to both employees and employers. First, the studies were remarkably consistent in finding the associations between higher levels of work-family conflict and the aforementioned negative outcomes featured in this section (for example, poor physical health, lower levels of life satisfaction) despite the fact that the researchers used a variety of measures of work-family interference (e.g., Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981; Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Gutek, Searle & Klepa, 1991; Kopelman, Greenhaus & Connolly, 1983). Second, a number of the studies cited (e.g., Anderson et al., 2002; Burke, 1988; Frone, 2000; Frone, et al., 1996; Hammer et al., 2005) involved fairly large (that is, 450 respondents or more) samples which increase the generalizability of the findings. Given the negative outcomes associated with work-life conflict, it is problematic for employees and employers that work-life conflict levels are on the rise in North America. A large sample Canadian study by Duxbury and Higgins (2001) noted that relative to their 1991 results, significant increases were reported in work-life conflict. These increases were experienced regardless of gender, job type or parental status. A rising trend in work-life conflict has also been reported in the United States. Whereas thirty percent of respondents in the late 1970s and early 1980s were claiming that their job interfered with family somewhat or a great deal (e.g., Galinsky, Ruopp, & Blum, 1983; General Mills, Inc., 1981; Quinn & Staines, 1979), more recent data indicate these numbers have climbed. The most recent National Study of the Changing Workforce (NSCW) indicates that employees with families report higher levels (45 per cent experienced 'some' or 'a lot') of interference between their jobs and their family lives compared to respondents in 1977 (34 per cent experiencing 'some' or 'a lot') (Bond, Thompson, Galinsky, & Prottas, 2003). This paper will review the literature on alternative work arrangements and supervisor support and the impact of these constructs on work-life conflict. Hypotheses will be developed and tested using a representative sample of Canadian federal government employees. The findings will be presented and discussed along with the limitations of the study and future research directions. …

The Implementation of Strategic Management in Local Governments. an International Delphi Study

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In recent decades, local governments have introduced a wide range of techniques to improve their management The objectives pursued vary depending on the initiatives, the implementers, the specific contexts and the moment Nevertheless, they have usually been to reduce costs, to improve performance in terms of quality, efficiency and effectiveness, to improve citizen satisfaction, to become more responsible and accountable and to improve citizen trust in government In spite of the criticisms about the suitability of some of these techniques or the difficulties that they imply in practice, public sector organizations are "obliged" to introduce new ways of managing their resources as traditional managerial processes seem to have serious shortcomings Management improvement has become a must as the environment has become more competitive and uncertain (Naschold and Daley, 1999) This atmosphere of necessary change has encouraged the implementation of performance measurement (Bouckaert, 1993; OECD, 2005; Yang, 2007) and strategic management systems (Vinzant and Vinzant, 1996b; Poister and Streib, 1999, 2005) Public organizations, particularly local governments, have embraced different management initiatives and municipal managers have adopted recognized private sector management tools (Chan, 2004), such as the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) and Global Reporting Initiatives (GRI), in their quest to introduce strategic management Poister and Streib (1999, 2005) show the growing interest in strategic management in the public sector, despite the difficulties of implementing it in the public arena According to Chan (2004), in the USA and Canada, most municipal governments have developed measures to assess their key organizational areas such as finances, customer satisfaction, operating efficiency and employee performance This paper aims to analyze the different factors involved in the implementation process of strategic management and how they affect the result of the implementation We study the behavior of local governments when implementing strategic management, taking the BSC (1) as a benchmark, and to what extent that behavior explains the degree of alignment between local governments' publicized objectives and the actual configurations of their strategic management system The sample is made up of local governments with acknowledged experience in strategic management in Australia, Spain, Sweden and the USA This study contributes to a better understanding and planning of the implementation of strategic management initiatives in local governments The rest of the paper is structured as follows: in Section 2, we introduce strategic management in the context of the public sector; in Section 3, we present the theoretical framework; Section 4 develops the methodology; Section 5 contains the analysis of the results and Section 6 the discussion Finally, we draw conclusions about the main findings of our study STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR In the eighties, New Public Management initiatives drove the public sector in the direction of management Since then, the focus on securing organizational change as opposed to organizational maintenance has become more important in the public sector (Ferlie, 1992), and public sector reforms have increased awareness of the importance of strategic choices about how to provide public services The need for strategic management practices in the public sector grew when public organizations moved from relatively stable environments into more rapidly changing and competitive ones that are characterized by resource scarcity (Montanari and Bracker, 1986) Ansoff and Hayes (1976) argued that strategic management was needed in environments where new patterns of power and influence were emerging, where basic norms and values were being challenged and where the legitimacy and social utility of the organizations was being redefined …

A Coevolutionary Revision of Decision Making Processes: An Analysis of Port Extensions in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Decision making is often embedded in the implicit or explicit assumption that human decision makers have considerable freedom to steer the system they want to change. This type of thinking is dominant in decision making over physical systems such as rivers, coastal zones, nature parks, etc. Considerable resources are spent on research and planning procedures in order to develop a comprehensive plan for an area. As long as the physical system responds in predictable ways, there are no obvious reasons to challenge this assumption. But often, the responses are erratic and, sometimes, unfavorable (cf. Gunderson, 2001). Although unfavorable consequences are often attributed to poor planning strategies and faulty decision making, they are not a proof that decision makers have made intentional errors. Rather, it shows that decision making take place in a capricious world that is prone to ignore steering incentives. This is manifestly so in the case of decision making over physical systems such as ports and their maritime access. From the case studies presented in this article, it appears that decision makers are often surprised by the outcomes of their decisions, sometimes unpleasantly. The first step in understanding how seemingly sound decisions can lead to unintended or even unwanted effects on physical systems is to understand that decisions and the actors who make these decisions are an integral part of a chain of causes and consequences that drives physical change (cf. Hook, 1999; Turner 2000). This calls for a contingent analysis of the dynamics of steering physical systems. The purpose of this article is to analyze that chain of causes and consequences in order to explain unexpected outcomes in decision making over physical systems. Central to this analysis is the concept of coevolution. This concept forms the heart of a conceptual model of decision making processes that is presented in the following section. This model is then used to analyze two case studies about decision making over seaport extensions in fragile estuaries in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. The longitudinal analysis of the cases shows that decisions made under pressure backfire in the long run. This analysis leads to the formulation of five propositions about complex decision making processes in the final section of this article. A COMPLEX SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE There is ample research about the workings of physical systems such as the estuaries discussed in this article. However, public decision making is still generally regarded as a black box from the perspective of natural sciences as little is understood about the dynamics of decision making and the impact of those dynamics on physical systems. On the other hand, while the dynamics of decision making are the core subjects in Public Administration, less is known from that perspective about the physical effects of decisions on the systems and how these effects in turn influence decision makers. In Public Administration, it is the physical system that is the black box. A number of authors identify the need to understand the connections and dynamic interactions between physical systems and public decision making processes but a thorough empirical understanding of these relationships has hitherto been lacking (Folke, 2006; Gual & Norgaard, 2010; Kalis & Norgaard, 2010; Kotchen & Young, 2007; O'Sullivan, Manson, Messina, & Crawford, 2006). In order to understand these relations, one has first to assume a systemic point of departure for analysis. Unintended changes may occur as a result of an incorrect decision but could also be caused by a (physical) development elsewhere in the environment or a combination of factors. Isolating the object of research from its context is unhelpful as this context is necessary for a better understanding of the relationships. Secondly, such an analysis should take into account that the causal relationships between systems are circular as systems respond to changes from other systems, i. …

Nonprofit Board Effectiveness, Private Philanthropy, and Financial Vulnerability

Abstract: In the last 15 years, demands on nonprofit organizations for service, development, and accountability have evolved. Many nonprofits face great competition for public funding and continuous pressure to expand access to service. As Kearns (1994) noted, a dramatic expansion in the size and influence of nonprofit organizations has led to tighter scrutiny of resource management from a broad spectrum of stakeholders (e.g., government agencies, private donors, the media, clients of the organizations, and the public at-large). While service and accountability standards have been elevated in recent years, so has the overall importance of a nonprofit's governing board of directors. Board members as a whole are charged with the public's trust in guiding nonprofit organizations in the effective and efficient administration of its purpose (Kearns, 1994). In general, boards are expected to provide financial oversight, to counsel on the organization's strategy, and to assist in the development of financial and other resources. As such, the effectiveness of an organization's board is likely to have a direct influence on the organization's overall performance in terms of both financial management and service delivery. A number of recent studies have explored the impact of board characteristics on fundraising success, mission development, and service provision (e.g., Heimovics, Herman, & Jurkiewics, 1993; Herman & Renz, 2000; Miller-Millesen, 2003; Provan, 1980). As a set, studies of this kind identify a link between board activity and proxies of organizational success (e.g., service provision). There is, however, a lack of clear research on the relationship between board activity and bottom-line economic stability. The question remains, therefore: does board effectiveness have an impact on the overall financial health of a nonprofit organization? A recent study by Hodge and Piccolo (2005) used a short measure of board activity to derive a link between board behavior and financial stability. According to the authors, existing resources drive the nature of board involvement in day-to-day operations and in strategic planning activities of the organization. Results of the study by Hodge and Piccolo suggest that planning and development activities by the board have a significant impact on the economic stability of an organization, as measured by an index of financial vulnerability (Tuckman & Chang, 1991). The Hodge and Piccolo study used a small sample and a rather narrow measure of board activity, so additional research is needed to understand how and when board behavior shapes bottom-line performance. As such, the primary purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between board effectiveness and the overall fiscal health of a nonprofit organization as measured by financial vulnerability (Tuckman & Chang, 1991). The relationship is an important one in that the role of an organization's board is generally regarded as critical for the success and survival of a nonprofit. In support of this purpose, the current study integrates concepts in resource dependence theory (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2003) to examine the extent to which resource structure (e.g., private philanthropy) serves as a boundary condition on the link between board effectiveness and financial vulnerability. Beyond our interest in if the board impacts financial health, we are also interested in examining when. In the following sections, we provide a brief overview of the three main concepts in this study: board effectiveness, financial vulnerability, and primary funding source (specifically private philanthropy). We then offer hypotheses about interrelationships among these three variables, describe our methods of data collection and analysis, and offer results and conclusions of this study. Financial Vulnerability Although the literature provides a host of qualitative and subjective measures of organizational performance (e. …

Enhancing Academic Achievement by Identifying and Minimizing the Impediments to Active Learning

Abstract: Although active learning strategies are the most effective means for promoting deep learning and understanding, implementation is impeded by student and faculty preferences for stimulus-response learning. The paper therefore identifies the bases for the preferences and strategies for counteracting them. The implementation of these strategies and active learning requires a greater amount of time to address course materials than is the case for stimulus-response learning. The paper therefore discusses several approaches for de-cluttering courses and MPA curriculum along with interweaving the remaining elements in a manner that fosters understanding and lifelong learning. INTRODUCTION The education and teaching literatures have extensively discussed active learning strategies and the benefits of implementing them, but have accorded minimal attention to the barriers to implementation. More specifically, active learning strategies such as application, discussion, group work, journaling, service learning, simulations, and students responding to questions or posing questions arising from the readings (Dietz-Uhler & Lanter, 2009; Hattery, 2003, Novak, 2002; Pollack & Motoike, 2006; Sands & Shelton, 2010; Schaefer & Zygmont, 2003) are credited with producing greater rates of deep learning and understanding than passive learning (Candela, Dalley, & Benzel-Lindley 2006; Novak, 2002). However, maximizing the rates of deep learning and understanding is dependent on counteracting student and faculty preferences for the polar opposite of active learning which is passive or stimulus-response learning. In the absence of overcoming these preferences, the inclusion of active learning strategies in MPA courses entails placing a thin veneer of active learning over the foundation of passive or stimulus-response learning. Under these conditions, faculty continue to minimize course preparation time while students are able to perpetuate the learned behaviors of limiting their responses to the procedures, knowledge, and skills addressed by the course while ignoring elements from other courses, knowledge, and skills that may be more appropriate or generate a deeper understanding of the topic. Due to operating within these parameters, the linkages developed between material discussed in the course and the students' preexisting knowledge structure are artificially limited along with the probability of recalling and utilizing the information at a later date. Nor is it possible to identify the components of the students' responses that are conditioned reactions to the stimuli generated by the assessment mechanism or indicators of deep learning and understanding (Billing, 2007; Connor-Greene, 2000; Doyle, 1988; Hay, 20007; Hay & Kinchin, 2008; Lithner, 2008; Taylor & White 2006; Watters & Watters, 2007). There also are few instances in which the literature has examined the curricular implications of implementation even though it is a significant issue in the introduction of active learning strategies. The central challenge in executing active learning strategies is that they consume more time than stimulus-response/passive learning. Unless there is sufficient slack in the curriculum, the integration of active learning strategies into the MPA curriculum therefore necessitates a reduction in the volume of knowledge and skills addressed by the curriculum or an increase in the number of required credit hours. Given the role of stimulus-response learning in inhibiting the realization of active learning's benefits, the next section provides a brief synopsis of stimulus-response learning and a description of the student and faculty preferences for this approach to education. The section also delineates some of the strategies for counteracting the preferences and thereby maximizing the extent to which active learning strategies foster deep learning and understanding. Due to active learning strategies requiring a greater amount of time to address topics, the subsequent section addresses strategies for prioritizing curriculum components, reducing the breadth of coverage, and integrating the remaining course materials. …

Property Tax Limits and Fiscal Burdens: The Role of Organizational Structure

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The fiscal crisis facing governments throughout the U.S. has put a premium on fiscal flexibility. The federal government generally has the greatest flexibility as it has unlimited borrowing authority and the ability to run annual deficits. County governments, on the other hand, are at the "... bottom of the fiscal food chain" (Pagano and Johnston, 2000, p159). The difficulties in which county governments operate has been well documented (e.g., Menzel and Thomas, 1996) and stems largely from their lack of home-rule powers, service provision mixes which have historically been dominated by state mandated services (health and human services, road maintenance, public safety and courts and public records systems) and, in many states, state-imposed tax and expenditure limits (TELs). A good deal of research has been conducted on the impact of TELs on municipal and state government decision-making (Abrams, 1986; Bails, 1990; Joyce and Mullins, 1991; Lowery, 1983; Mullins and Joyce, 1996; Lowery, 1983; Mullins, 2004; Mullins and. Wallin 2004; Shadbegian, 1999; Skidmore, 1997). Unfortunately, very little research has been conducted on county-level responses to TELs. In one of the few that included counties, Springer et. al. (2009) found that Kansas county officials increased property taxes, own source revenues and expenditures under a stricter version of TEL at higher rates than they did after the TEL was made much less stringent. The authors speculate that, "local officials, fearing potential shortfalls, automatically levied to the near maximum allowable amount... freed of limitations, local officials knew they had the flexibility to tax what was needed..." (67). While our understanding of county-level responses to TELs is limited, we do know quite a bit about county governance structure. A host of research is available that examines explanations for changes in county organizational or administrative structure and the effects of those changes (Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1988, 1991; DeSantis and Renner, 1993; Menzel and Thomas, 1996; Morgan and Kickham, 1999; Sokolow, 1993; MacManus, 1996; Marando and Reeves, 1993; Martin and Nyhan, 1994; Salant and Martin, 1993; Wiseman, Giles and McCormick, 1994; Mead, 1994; Lyons and Scheb, 1998; Leland and Thurmaier, 2000; Feiock and Carr, 2000; Carr and Feiock, 2002; Benson 2003a). Of particular interest has been the conversion to "reformed" or "progressive" forms of organizational structure, typically defined as elected executive or appointed administrator (Benton, 2002, 2003a; DeSantis and Renner, 1996; Cigler, 1995). These works, of course, stem from empirical studies of municipal governance structure effects dating back to the 1960s (e.g., Lineberry and Fowler, 1967). While the research on the effects of government structure on policy outcomes is extensive, much less has been done in the area of fiscal policy with the exception of some of the most recent work by Benton (2002, 2003b) and some of the earlier work of DeSantis and Renner (1996), Schneider and Park (1989) and Park (1996). This is important because of the nagging question of what responsiveness means in terms of structural effects. The progressives argued for non-partisan elections and professional administration as a means of minimizing the effects of party machines and enhancing local government's responsiveness to its citizens (Lineberry and Fowler, 1967). If we assume that state adoption of TELs is a political response to constituent concerns over high taxes, we should expect to see reformed county governments more responsive to those concerns. The shift to progressive forms of local government lies on two central pillars; the removal of party machine politics and the introduction of administrative professionalism. Here the goal is to improve the efficiency of producing services while reducing tax burdens. The shift has occurred, however, in many states where local governments are subject to artificial tax and expenditure limits. …

A Tale of Two Cities: An Exploratory Study of Consolidation and Annexation Policies in the Cities of Memphis and Nashville

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In what many have dubbed an "urban crisis," America's metropolitan areas have dramatically changed in the past half-century. Urban sprawl has transformed what used to be vibrant cities into havens for the poor. Increasingly, these areas have suffered from higher crime rates, underfunded school systems, crumbling infrastructure, poorer public health, greater dispersion of jobs, a growing divide between the rich and poor, increasing concentrations of poverty, and a growing population loss of the city's most affluent tax base (Fleischmann, 2000a; Rusk, 2000). The loss of an affluent tax base has been highlighted as a fundamental cause for these languishing conditions. Much of this tax revenue loss has been attributed to the exit of former middle and upper-class city inhabitants who have since moved beyond the outer reaches of the city. According to a study by Savitch and Vogel (2000b), almost all major, industrial U.S. cities have lost residents as a result of out migration to the suburbs. In fact, the study further contends, the population growth in suburbs is more than twice than the cities. "In 1996, 2.7 million people left central cities for the suburbs, whereas only 800,000 moved in the opposite direction" (Savitch and Vogel, 2000b: 158). In an effort to deal with the effects of urban sprawl, the policy of New Regionalism has emerged. At its core, New Regionalism seeks to reduce the inequalities which have arisen from suburbanization and to foster a collective future for the residents of both the city and the suburb (Savitch and Vogel, 2000a). In order to do so, New Regionalists have proposed multiple local-government restructuring measures that, once enacted, would contain growth, reduce economic disparities and racial segregation, and ultimately combine city and suburban resources (Savitch and Vogel, 2000b: 161). Two of the most widely-known and often used methods are city-county consolidation and annexation (Rusk 2003). This paper seeks to explore the effects of these two methods by comparing the city of Memphis with the city of Nashville. In so doing, the authors expand on research which, for the most part, has relied on single-city case studies. Also, in contrast to these former studies, which have focused on the how, who, and why city-county consolidation proposals have emerged and the reasons for their successful and unsuccessful ratifications, this study will focus on what happens to the city and county once a consolidation proposal has passed or, in the case of Memphis, failed. Furthermore, this study will challenge the popular conception that city-county consolidation is the panacea to the many ills existing within local governments and their communities. Besides consolidation, annexation has been considered another viable option for local government leaders. More importantly, which method provides the best benefits to a city? Specifically, with regards to a city's tax base, which method offers a city greater control over the revenue it needs to provide services to its citizens, to continue to secure its future viability, and to prevent the downward spiral that has defined many American cities in the last sixty years? Background information on Memphis and Nashville The City of Nashville and the City of Memphis were chosen primarily because of their relatively similar demographic characteristics. Although 1960 Census data shows that Memphis had a population over twice the size of Nashville's, after the consolidation of Nashville with Davidson County in 1962, both cities had comparable population sizes by 1970. Table 1 shows that the city of Memphis experienced significant growth from 1960-1970 and relatively stable growth during the next 35 years with a few exceptions. The Nashville area experienced incremental growth over the 1970-1980 periods. Given the substantial growth in the suburbs surrounding both cities, it is highly likely that those with the economic means to leave the city are moving to the suburbs. …

Local Economic Development Joint Ventures and Metropolitan Networks

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Research on U. S. metropolitan development has explored the variety of non-government organizations that are involved in shaping local economic development policy (Agranoff and McGuire 2003; Feiock, Steinacker, and Park 2009) . Prior research also suggests that in addition to collaboration with non-government entities, voluntary horizontal agreements among local governments are common in a variety of policy areas, particularly service delivery (Thurmaier and Wood 2002; LeRoux 2008; Andrew 2009; Carr, LeRoux, and Shrestha 2009). Joint ventures are also more prevalent than one might expect (Johnson and Neiman 2004). These are bilateral agreements among local governments established primarily for economic development purposes (Hawkins 2009; Hawkins 2010). Cooperation across government units, however, presents a problem of "institutional collective action" (Feiock 2004). Local and regional economic, demographic and institutional characteristics shape the incentive structure of local officials and influence decisions on interjurisdictional cooperation. Nevertheless, individual government units have been successful in crafting agreements that provide for joint benefits to the participants involved (Steinacker 2010). However, the formation of joint ventures remains an understudied component of metropolitan governance and collaborative economic development. To improve our general understanding of metropolitan governance and joint ventures, this study focuses on the relations among local governments and other government and non-government organizations that comprise a metropolitan-wide economic development network. To what extent do local governments utilize these network actors in economic development decision making, and do the role of network actors vary between communities that have successfully formed a joint venture and those that have not? To answer these questions, a survey of local economic development practitioners was conducted to identify cities with joint ventures and the government and non-government organizations that are relied on in economic development. Descriptive statistics and the results of mean t-tests suggest there is considerable variation in the extent to which metropolitan network actors are utilized by local governments in a manner that may influence interjurisdictional cooperation. The structure of the paper is as follows. In section one I discuss joint ventures as a form of interjurisdictional cooperation. In section two I review the literature on networks and governance and the three theoretical perspectives used to explore the relations formed among metropolitan network actors. I then discuss the research design and data collection. The analysis section presents descriptive statistics and draws comparisons between cities that have formed a joint venture with those that have not. INTERJURISDICTIONAL COOPERATION In many instances, urban management problems are forcing cities to look beyond their jurisdictional borders in forming development policies and partnerships with other local governments (Ciglar 1999; Feiock, Moon, and Park 2008). For example, previous studies indicate that economic factors constitute one of the most frequently cited rationales for cooperation among local governments (Morgan and Hirlinger 1991). Economic considerations, including improved competitiveness and receiving financial resources, are explanations in the decision to form interjurisdictional agreements for economic development purposes (Hawkins 2009). One argument for more cooperation is seen in a steady call for "regionalism" (Savitch and Vogel 2000). Advocates of regionalism suggest that fragmented governments cannot adequately address issues of sprawl and the negative externality effects from development in neighboring jurisdictions (Rusk 1995; Olberding 2002). It is argued that fragmented jurisdictions have economic inefficiencies and individual government units are considered too small to address development issues in an increasing global economy (Dolan 1990; Stephens and Wikstrom 2000). …

Worldwide Municipality Websites between 2005 and 2007: An OCED Perspective That Compares Maturational and Curvilinear Best Practices Explanations

Abstract: From its inception, the electronic medium has evoked transformational expectations across the entire public sector. As the president of the National Academy of Public Administration states early on: "The new technologies will allow ... citizen[s] new access to the levers of power in government. As more information reaches ... citizen[s], the greater the potential for them to influence and make informed choices regarding how government touches their lives. That potential gives new meaning to a 'government of the people, by the people, and for the people'" (O'Neill, 2001). In the interim, jurisdictions are certainly encountering praise for their electronic efficiency and effectiveness (Parent et al., 2005). At the same time, determining the impact of digitized government is problematic, as traditional performance measures overestimate usage by counting site visits or passive service provision, such as submitting tax returns or accepting welfare stipends (Pirog & Johnson, 2008). A manifest concern is: are jurisdictions--at all levels--authentically empowering digitized government to improve agency services and to augment participation? The study's focal point examines evaluations of worldwide municipal Web sites--and, in particular, cities in industrialized democracies. (1) The paper begins by briefly summarizing digitized government literature and, then, by elaborating theoretical issues endemic to the field. They precede proposing two study questions. Next, the paper demonstrates the advantages of studying digitized government as two distinct elements, e-government and e-governance, which leads to presenting methodology and design. The principal analysis explores longitudinal data sets of worldwide municipal Web sites in 2005 and 2007. While such supply-side surveys of city Web sites may appear to position "best performers," they also serve as proxies for "best practices--which is our central theme. The discussion portion relates the findings to the study questions. The conclusions compare two perspectives to explain the findings, followed by suggestions for future research proposals. THE QUANDARY OF DIGITIZED GOVERNMENT RESEARCH The significance of the digitized medium is well-documented. In the United States its acceptance by endusers is nearly universal (Fox, 2004) and in European countries adult electronic contact with public officials remains about 30% (European Commission, 2009). Yet, a certain quandary emanates from literature reviews on digitized government research, as they emphasize the field's shortcomings. While both Titah and Barki (2006) and Norris and Lloyd (2006) offer exhaustive assessments, their reviews delineate that the paucity of theoretical frameworks sidetracks ongoing hypothesis-testing. In a subsequent literature search, Flak et al. (2007) counsel: "The precursor to articulation of theories in any field is a consensus among researchers on concepts and definitions" (p. 14), which is lacking. (2) Additionally, Flak et al. find that: "eGovernment remains under-theorized and there are few attempts at either theory testing or theory building," and that "research has shown limited cross [-] referencing and hardly any cumulative studies" (p. 13)--a conclusion echoed by Misra (2007a). Indeed, Heeks and Bailur (2007) observe that: " ... [the field's] research draws mainly from a weak or confused positivism" (p. 243). They also caution that the literature's most common theme: " ... currently provides other researchers with just models or lists, particularly with the four-stage Web model of e-government" (p. 255). As this maturational view bundles services and collaboration, it fosters that digitization traverses diagonally--conditions criticized by others (Gronlund, 2003; Misra, 2007). In their more recent literature appraisal, Akesson et al. (2008) conclude that a disjuncture between theory and empirical work pervades public sector electronic studies. To summarize, the reviews highlight both the dearth of theory development and the limitations of cumulative knowledge as epitomizing digitized government research. …

Are State Government Workers Satisfied with Their Jobs When the Organization Is Effective

Abstract: Research examining the impact of specific extrinsic and intrinsic factors on satisfaction can be traced back to the Human Relations era of organizational theory which began in the late 1920s. After 80 years, however, researchers are still continuing to study factors that affect satisfaction (Brewer, Selden, & Facer, 2000; Bright, 2008; Crewson, 1997; Dehart-Davis, Marlowe, & Pandey, 2006; Naff & Crum, 1999; Perry, 1996; Rainey & Steinbauer, 1999) because there is still a lot that is unclear (Perry and Wise 1990). As a result, questions arise as to whether or not public officials know which factors can increase the satisfaction of their employees. One possible factor that can enlighten public officials is organizational effectiveness. The belief is that employees want their organization to achieve its goals and mission and, when it does, organizational effectiveness serves as an intrinsic incentive that can improve job satisfaction. Thus employees may respond to additional factors besides financial incentives. While this association is very important, as it can explain job satisfaction differences across government agencies, it is seldom studied. Therefore, the goal of this article is to determine the connection between organizational effectiveness and job satisfaction. That is, will government workers have higher job satisfaction scores when they perceive the agency is fulfilling its mission and goals? To explore this relationship, other mitigating factors such as public service motivation, role ambiguity, and position in the organization are examined as well. In examining organizational effectiveness and employee satisfaction, this article is organized in the following manner. First, relevant literature is examined and hypotheses are proposed. Second, a model is developed and the measurement of each variable is explained. Third, the model is tested on state government employees and the results are discussed. Last, the conclusion explains the article's implications and caveats, along with possible topics for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES Job satisfaction, a response to the experience of specific tasks (Williams & Hazer, 1986), is the most studied facet of organizational behavior (Rainey, 1991). Research on this topic demonstrates that satisfied employees have superior attendance (Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999), locus of control (Elias, 2009), commitment (Boardman & Sundquist, 2009), and are less likely to be involved in misconduct (Andreoli & Lefkowitz, 2009) when compared to dissatisfied workers. Therefore, organizations stand to benefit when workers are satisfied. Despite these findings, however, scholars have been divided regarding the connection between job satisfaction and improved job performance (e.g., Brayfield & Crockett, 1955; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Petty, McGee, & Cavender, 1984); and, few have empirically examined the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational effectiveness (Boardman & Sunquist, 2009; Kim, 2005; Perry & Miller, 1991; Taris & Schreurs, 2009). Therefore, the association between job satisfaction and organizational effectiveness is investigated in this article. In addition to organizational effectiveness, there are other factors that are expected to affect job satisfaction. As a result, this section explores the relevant individual and organizational factors that are assumed to affect job satisfaction. Furthermore, hypotheses and a job satisfaction model were developed from organizational behavior literature. Demographic Factors Age, gender, ethnicity, tenure, and educational attainment are common factors that are included in job satisfaction research. While these factors are sometimes associated with job satisfaction, scholars normally use them only as control variables and, little, if any, attention is devoted to their association with job satisfaction (e. …

Mode-Neutral and the Need to Transform Teaching

Abstract: INTRODUCTION While it is difficult to argue that public administrators at any given point in history face more challenges than at any other point, no one would disagree that public administrators face major new challenges today. It is unlikely that traditional ways of coping will effectively meet the new challenges. We need leaders who are innovative and who are not bound by geography or narrow self-interest. To grow these leaders, we need to change the way we teach. The "mass production" mode of education, marked by a teacher imparting knowledge and students absorbing facts, will not "produce" transformational leaders. If we are truly concerned with nurturing transformational leaders in our programs, we must use the principles of transformational leadership to design and teach our classes. We need to focus on increasing student choice, power and the enhanced ability of our students to shape their learning experience. This shift in the "locus of control" in MPA classes is one element that will promote the development of transformational leadership in our graduates. Mode neutral approaches to education can be one element that can aid in the development of transformational leaders. In addition to locus of control, there are other elements that enhance creativity and innovation. Management research leads us to believe that organizational innovation relies on open contribution, peer review, joint development and context setting (Ruggles III, 2004). Again, these are also the goals of mode neutral approaches. DEFINITION What is mode neutral education? Smith defines mode neutral as "a method that allows students to progress across modes of delivery (face-to-face, online and blended) at any point throughout their study based on their preferences, requirements, personal and professional commitments without compromising their learning" (Reed, Smith, & Sherrat, 2008). In a class setting this means that students may choose to participate face-to-face, online or in any combination at any time during the semester. Mode neutral is different than "blended" or even "HyFlex" course design (Educause, 2010). The Sloan Consortium defines blended as a course that has between 30 and 70 percent of the content delivered online (Watson, 2008). Below 30 percent is considered on ground and above 70 percent is considered online. This definition is a good one for a course in which the instructor defines what may be taken online and what may be taken on ground. But what if the student can choose to participate online or on ground as they wish? The percent of the course delivered online then depends on the behavior of the student at any given point during the semester. Mode neutral education is the next logical step in the evolution of "online" education. It is, in essence, the step that removes the wall between online and on ground class participation. In what has been called "the convergence of online and face-to-face communication" (Watson, 2008), technology and teaching capabilities are in many places erasing the distinction between on ground and online. This evolution is both a technological push and a student pull. While it may be argued that mode-neutral delivery is simply another form of blended education, perhaps the same as HyFlex, beyond delivery mode there are philosophical differences with these options that also separate mode neutral from much of our existing teaching practice. This will be considered as we further explore mode-neutral. NEXT STAGE? New technology and connectivity make real-time as well as asynchronous contact and collaboration relatively commonplace. Texting, Skype and all the versions of chat now available blur the boundaries between face-to-face and online with their ease of use and immediacy. While many have focused on the loss of the intimate face-to-face experience in the online experience, this perhaps undervalues the ability of the technology to enhance the classroom and enrich levels of communication. …

Reconsidering Accountability for Environmental Inspectors: Trading 'Compliance by Computer' for Relationship Building

Abstract: Discussions of accountability have permeated the field of public administration for some time and seem to occupy our collective conscious when it comes to evaluating the performance of civil servants and agencies alike. Of particular importance in this conversation is the role of street-level bureaucrats, or front-line workers. Although these crucial civil servants are increasingly considered--particularly with regards to accountability (c.f. Hupe and Hill 2007; Pollitt 2003; Day and Klein 1987)--key segments of the front-line worker population continue to be neglected. Most specifically, front-line workers in the environmental policy arena play a significant, yet routinely overlooked, role in protecting and ensuring the quality of the natural environment (there are a few exceptions, however, c.f. Scheberle 2004; Pautz 2009). Environmental inspectors are those civil servants who work predominantly at the state level and interact with the regulated community to ensure compliance with environmental laws. As with all categories of civil servants, it is suspected that environmental inspectors face competing definitions of accountability that can adversely impact performance and achievement of policy goals. Perhaps one of the most important ways to gain insight about the types of accountability these front-line regulators encounter is to ask the regulators themselves. Environmental inspectors in Virginia and Ohio were interviewed to determine their perceptions on interacting with the regulated community and how accountability is manifested. The results of 34 interviews and subsequent qualitative data analysis provide initial insights into the types of accountability these inspectors would prefer and demonstrate that "compliance by computer" occurs from a seemingly overreliance on output rather than outcome measures. Inspectors in this study would prefer to be in the field interacting with the regulated community and building relationships with them to achieve the best possible environmental outcomes. Instead, the inherent tensions of pursuing conflicting views of accountability appear to leave these inspectors stuck in the office processing paperwork rather than working with their counterparts in the regulated community to achieve environmental goals. Understanding inspectors' views on accountability are particularly relevant in the environmental policy arena as more alternative policy tools are being embraced that embody fewer attributes of traditional command and control policies. To investigate the perceptions of inspectors and their work, this exploratory research begins by contextualizing the interviews with a brief look at conceptualizations of accountability and their applicability to the work of regulators. Then the discussion shifts to a more focused consideration of environmental inspectors themselves and why conversations with inspectors directly are long overdue. With this background, the findings from the nearly three dozen interviews are examined before the paper concludes with a look at the implications of shifting from bureaucratic to professional accountability for environmental inspectors. ACCOUNTABILITY Before exploring the remarks of nearly three dozen environmental inspectors, first we must examine accountability in the context of these front-line regulators. Accountability, despite its ubiquity in public administration (c.f. Frederickson 2007), does not have a standard, widely accepted definition (c.f. Koppell 2005). Romzek (2000) defines accountability as the process of holding someone answerable for performance. There is extensive discussion regarding the dimensions and types of accountability (c.f. Romzek & Dubnick 1987; Romzek 2000; Behn 2001; Gormley & Balla 2004; Koppell 2005) and Frederickson (2007), among others, notes the dominance of accountability discussions in public administration and how much of those discussions focus on accountability as "little more than measures of organizational performance" (11). …

Increasing Student Engagement and Learning: Using Big Hairy Audacious Goals as an Empowering Semester Project

Abstract: Like most educators, we have looked out over the classes we teach and seen too many unmotivated, uninterested, and disengaged students. Teaching such students can be frustrating, not only because their engagement is not what we would ideally hope for, but also because we are genuinely concerned about our students and want them to be successful in their studies as well as in their chosen professions. Consequently, we feel both concern and frustration for many of our students and find it hard, at times, to understand why they behave in ways that stifle their learning. Certainly, there are always those students in our classes who are motivated and excited to work, and such students bring great joy to teaching. Nevertheless, we repeatedly ask ourselves semester after semester, "Why aren't more of our students engaged in our classes?" "Why do so many of our students sit and stare without response when we ask a question?" "Why do so many of our students hand in sub-par assignments when we know they are capable of better work?" Despite this challenge, we argue that students are indeed capable of doing much more than they usually demonstrate. In addition, we believe that it is one of our primary responsibilities as teachers to empower our students in ways that increase their engagement and learning. Therefore, as teachers we must to create conditions for learning that energize our students and increase their motivation to learn. This responsibility, however, is daunting and often difficult to achieve. Nonetheless, we argue that within our individual classrooms and course curricula we have the potential to empower our students in such a way that their engagement and learning significantly increases. In this essay, we offer the concept of the Big Hairy Audacious Goal (BHAG, pronounced bee-hag) (Porras & Collins, 1994), as a method for creating empowering conditions that significantly increases student engagement and learning. EMPOWERMENT AND LEARNING Some of the most noted education theorists have long argued that students experience very little empowerment in the classroom and have claimed that educators must empower their students if they want student engagement and learning to increase (Freire, 1970; Shor, 1992; Shor & Freire, 1987). Yet, empowering students can be a difficult task because students often perceive themselves as powerless, and many teachers treat them that way (Palmer, 1998). For example, after choosing which classes to register for (if, in fact, they get that choice), students arrive in the classroom, receive a syllabus, are told to follow that syllabus each week, and are then evaluated by their teacher. Students rarely, if ever, get to choose what or how they will learn. Admittedly, it would not be wise to give complete choice in such areas as course design and curriculum development to students who have little or no expertise in a particular subject. However, it is still essential that students experience learning as empowering, because without empowerment, it is difficult to get students to produce high-quality assignments or to expect them to take responsibility for their learning. As we considered the need to empower our students, we turned to a psychological perspective of empowerment that operationalizes empowerment as intrinsic task motivation (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). From this perspective, empowerment is rooted in overcoming feelings of powerlessness and increasing feelings of self-efficacy. Empowerment thus, becomes the process of energizing and enabling others in order to help them experience whatever task they are engaged in as empowering (Spreitzer, 2007). This approach to empowerment has been grounded in a workplace context, but is also highly relevant to students and their classroom experiences since powerlessness is a common feeling among students (Palmer, 1998) and increasing feelings of self-efficacy is a continual struggle in a system of constant performance-based assessment (Bain, 2004). …

Impact of Human and Social Capital on Innovation and Economic Performance

Abstract: This paper explores the relationships between human and social capital and innovation and economic performance at the country level. To measure the level of human capital and social capital of each country, the author uses the data from the World Development Report and the World Values Survey. Based on previous theoretical studies, this study produces human capital and social capital indicators. The human capital indicator consists of life expectancy, educational attainment, and standard of living. The social capital indicator consists of (generalized and institutional) trust, associational activities (passive and active membership), and norms of civic behavior. After testing several models with time lags, this study found that there are positive relationships between human and social capital and innovation and between human and social capital and economic performance at the country level across 49 different countries. This implies that human and social capital would be drivers of innovation and economic performance of each country. Thus, it is believed that the results of this study provide good evidence of the positive contribution of human and social capital to innovation and economic performance of each country. This is also in line with most previous studies that have examined the roles of human capital in innovation and economic performance.