Showing papers in "Reciis in 2008"
TL;DR: In this article, Patricia Hill Collins contribui para a consolidacao do Pensamento Feminista Negro propondo uma teoria centrada na teoria critica, in which se privilegia o ponto de vista das mulheres negras.
Abstract: Em Black Feminist Thought, Patricia Hill Collins contribui para a consolidacao do Pensamento Feminista Negro propondo uma teoria centrada na teoria critica na qual se privilegia o ponto de vista das mulheres negras. Para desenvolver o argumento e as estrategias da construcao do seu marco teorico, Collins busca na vivencia e na experiencia da mulher negra norte-americana o trama principal da teoria. Trata-se de um trabalho necessario para a construcao de uma sociedade plural e polifonica cujas diversas vozes podem e devem ser acomodadas no mundo do conhecimento e das ciencias. O trabalho de Collins articula diversas correntes teoricas como estudos de genero e etnia, classes sociais, sociologia da ciencia, pensamento social marxista, teoria critica. Ela se inspira na Perspectiva Feminista de Sandra Harding, dos estudos da sociologia da ciencia, nos trabalhos de Angela Davis, uma das principais referencias dos estudos de genero e etnia e nas historias de vida das mulheres negras que Collins coleta ao longo da pesquisa. O livro de 335 paginas e dividido em tres partes. E na primeira parte que ela constroi a base teorica do Pensamento Feminista Negro que inclui com parte da Teoria Social Critica. De acordo com a autora, a teoria social critica permite analisar a situacao da mulher negra, assim como entender a supressao e a desvalorizacao do Neide Mayumi Osada
2,556 citations
TL;DR: The concept of social suffering is widely used in the social sciences, covering different aspects related to a loss in the quality of life, experienced both at individual level (psychopathological symptoms deriving from inhumane working conditions, unemployment or job instability) and collective level (social unease, degradation of the living conditions of communities, situations of domination, social exclusion, violence, psychological harassment, etc.).
Abstract: The book by Emmanuel Renault, professor of philosophy of the Ecole Normale Superieure of Lyon, presents an interesting and wide-ranging survey of recent studies of the concept of social suffering, based on philosophy, psychology and political science. The term social suffering (in the singular or plural) is widely used today in the social sciences, covering different aspects related to a loss in the quality of life, experienced both at individual level (psychopathological symptoms deriving from inhumane working conditions, unemployment or job instability, for example) and collective level (social unease, degradation of the living conditions of communities, situations of domination, social exclusion, violence, psychological harassment, etc.). The term is also evoked in political debates on the actions taken by society or public policies to identify the problems related to the living conditions or social exclusion of certain sectors of the population. In these debates, social suffering is frequently associated with the recent effects of neoliberalism, in particular increased job instability and the limitations imposed on social security for wage-earners and the unemployed. Although social suffering has existed in various societies and historical periods (suffering linked, for example, to the situation of workers with the onset of industrialization in 19th century Europe, slavery in colonized countries, forced labour or other authoritarian practices), the intensive use of the corresponding concept in the social sciences is fairly recent. In the French context, one author who contributed considerably to its divulgation is Christophe Dejours, a work psychologist who at the end of the 20th century investigated the Michel Thiollent
36 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide examples of research with vulnerable populations and describe in detail ways in which researchers and ethical review committees can work to decrease the risks of harm for these groups.
Abstract: Research with vulnerable participants raises a number of challenging issues for researchers and ethical review committees. Vulnerability arises when participants are relatively powerless compared with researchers. This may be due to extrinsic factors such as poverty or lack of education, or intrinsic factors such as severe illness or intellectual disability. Vulnerable participants risk increased harm from research because they are unable to protect their interests. This article provides examples of research with vulnerable populations and describes in detail ways in which researchers and ethical review committees can work to decrease the risks of harm for these groups. Also, the article presents a discussion of sharing research benefits fairly, and describes four conditions for ethical research with vulnerable participants.
32 citations
TL;DR: Examples of research with vulnerable populations are provided and ways in which researchers and ethical review committees can work to decrease the risks of harm for these groups are described.
Abstract: A pesquisa com participantes vulneraveis levanta uma serie de questoes desafiadoras para os pesquisadores e os comites de etica em pesquisa. A vulnerabilidade surge quando os participantes tem relativamente menos poder quando comparados aos pesquisadores. Isso pode ocorrer devido a fatores extrinsecos, como pobreza e pouca escolaridade, ou a fatores intrinsecos, como doenca grave ou deficiencia intelectual. Participantes vulneraveis correm risco de maiores danos em pesquisa porque nao sao capazes de proteger seus interesses. Este artigo oferece exemplos de pesquisas com populacoes vulneraveis e descreve em detalhes formas como pesquisadores e comites de etica em pesquisa podem trabalhar no sentido de diminuir os riscos de danos para esses grupos. Apresenta, ainda, uma discussao sobre a distribuicao justa dos beneficios da pesquisa e descreve quatro condicoes para a pesquisa etica com participantes vulneraveis.
20 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the relation between society (audiences and media producers) and media (channels an contents), considering the recent (and stunning) technological changes that took place in this environment of intersection between new and old media, the social implications of these transformations and their future trends.
Abstract: In the section “Acknowledgements” of the book Convergence culture, Henry Jenkins emphasizes that the book is the result of an “epic journey” that had lasted eight years and of the joint effort of many collaborators involved in the construction of the MIT Comparative Media Studies Program, of which he is founder and director. Characterizing the program as a center for “conversations about changes in the media (past, present and future)”, Jenkins also emphasizes his commitment with widening the “public dialogue about popular culture and contemporary life”. In this direction, the work analyzes the relation between society (audiences and media producers) and media (channels an contents), considering the recent (and stunning) technological changes that took place in this environment of intersection between new and old media, the social implications of these transformations and their future trends. The book is written in a light style allied to recognized academic rigor. Such qualities attract not only scholars but also other people interested in the subject convergence culture: active participants of new communication and information environments, pioneers and creative users of emerging media integrating, according to Jenkins, “fan communities”, “educators involved with informal learning communities”, creators or consumers of popular culture, activists, advertisers, executives and professionals of the media industry. His objective is to Sandra Lúcia Rebel Gomes Associated professor, Department of Science and Information, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil sandrarebelgomes@gmail.com
16 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the emergence of the field of research ethics in historical, social, and political events over the last 60 years is discussed, focusing on the historical and philosophical precedents of the latter field, and the first regulations on research ethics, the guidelines contained in the Belmont Report, and its influence on the creation of bioethical principlism.
Abstract: This article contextualizes the emergence of the field of research ethics in historical, social, and political events over the last 60 years. It draws a distinction between professional ethics and bioethics, focusing on the historical and philosophical precedents of the latter field. It also presents the appearance of research ethics as a result of the disclosure of cases of scientific misconduct, discussing the first regulations on research ethics, the guidelines contained in the Belmont Report, and its influence on the creation of bioethical principlism. The article also analyzes the functioning of research ethics committees and possible limitations to scientific activity. Finally, it highlights some issues that remain unsolved, such as payment to research participants, the conduct of research on unconscious people, using children in experiments for testing new drugs or new therapeutic indications, the definition of minimum risk, and the way bioethics has been taking place in developing countries.
15 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the main challenges involved in the ethical review of social research projects that use qualitative techniques for gathering data are analyzed, and the need for specific ethical guidelines for social research is also considered.
Abstract: This article analyzes the main challenges involved in the ethical review of social research projects that use qualitative techniques for gathering data. The Brazilian ethical review system was constructed having biomedical sciences as the main reference. This article goes over some of the main points of ethical tension in social research by discussing five classic cases in human and social sciences. It supports the possibility of social research being included in the current ethical review system, as long as there is a sensitization of the ethics committees regarding the methodological particularities imposed by qualitative techniques. Finally, the need for specific ethical guidelines for social research is also considered.
14 citations
TL;DR: In the past 20 years, new alternative ways of doing science have emerged throughout the world whose most important characteristic is their intimate relationship with the solution of problems of local or regional communities.
Abstract: A collateral effect of the globalization of the economy is the “globalization of science”. Part of the scientific production thus appears to be linked to the needs of the global markets. In the past 20 years, new alternative ways of “doing science” have emerged throughout the world whose most important characteristic is their intimate relationship with the solution of problems of local or regional communities. This paper reflects upon an experience that currently takes place in Mexico, where research is intimately linked to the learning function, and is strongly rooted into the New Information and Communication Technologies.
14 citations
12 citations
TL;DR: The OCDE as mentioned in this paper is a group of reflexao influente for os paises membros, e analisada em detalhes, especialmente por retorica sobre a "modernidade" e o papel da estatistica nela, e por sua influencia na recente reorientacao.
Abstract: Resenha do livro "La science sous observation. Cent ans de mesure sur les scientifiques, 1906-2006" que oferece uma breve historia da medicao da ciencia. Ele traca a origem dessa estatistica documentando suas ligacoes com o programa eugenico britânico Francis Galton no seculo XIX e seu aluno J.M. Cattell nos Estados Unidos no inicio do seculo XX. Uma parte importante do texto trata da institucionalizacao das estatisticas nos anos 1920 e seguintes. A OCDE, como um grupo de reflexao influente para os paises membros, e analisada em detalhes, especialmente por sua retorica sobre a "modernidade" e o papel da estatistica nela, e por sua influencia na recente reorientacao. estatisticas sobre inovacao.
9 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the legal basis for post-trial obligations is outlined by looking at international guidelines, including those issued by the World Medical Association (WMA), and the ethical foundation is analyzed, in particular the attempt to minimize exploitation of research subjects.
Abstract: In its essence, post-trial obligations describe a duty by research sponsors to provide a successfully tested drug to research participants who took part in the relevant clinical trials after the trial has been concluded. In some instances, this duty is extended beyond the research participants. This article is divided into three main parts. The first part outlines the legal basis for post-trial obligations by looking at international guidelines, including those issued by the World Medical Association. National legislation is exemplified through resolutions and guidelines issued by Brazil and South Africa respectively. The second part analyses the ethical foundation for post-trial obligations, in particular the attempt to minimize exploitation of research subjects. The third part raises obstacles and challenges for the implementation of post-trial obligations. The jury is still out on whether post-trial obligations in the form of access to drugs for clinical trial participants is the best, or even a good way, to avoid exploitation in medical research.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the role of innovation, development, and intellectual property in the development and development of an innovative future, and Harnessing Minor Innovation: National Studies Part III: Diverse Paths to an Innovative Future
Abstract: Foreword Part I: Innovation, Development and Intellectual Property Introduction Part II: Harnessing Minor Innovation: National Studies Part III: Diverse Paths to an Innovative Future.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors pay special attention to four points that deserve reflexion, be they in the international or in a Brazilian context: the existing link between method and research ethics, the process of training and strengthening young scientists, the defense of a single standard for international collaborative studies, and the proposal to revise the current text of the Helsinki Declaration.
Abstract: The topic of research ethics is part of the scientific agenda in distinct areas of knowledge. The diversity of the aspects involved shows the complexity of the dilemmas that emerge in this scenario. This paper pays special attention to four points that deserve reflexion, be they in the international or in a Brazilian context: the existing link between method and research ethics, the process of training and strengthening young scientists, the defense of a single standard for international collaborative studies, and the proposal to revise the current text of the Helsinki Declaration. The analysis of these points permits to verify that significant advances in this field have occurred; however, the constant attempts to loosen the ethical requirements used to guide scientific practice could cause a backslide that would bring serious consequences for research participants. Brazil is a privileged country because the Brazilian system for ethical review of researches (the System CEP/Conep – Research Ethics Committees and Brazilian National Commission on Research Ethics) is linked to democratic control, which guarantees the originality and legitimacy the system needs in order to defend the interests and rights of subjects who participate in research.
TL;DR: The present article describes the informatization process of a hospital service, taking as an example the implementation of a prescription writing software, which allows doctors to prescribe via computer the pharmaceutical regimen to be prepared and dispensed by the nursing personnel.
Abstract: The present article describes the informatization process of a hospital service, taking as an example the implementation of a prescription writing software. This tool allows doctors to prescribe via computer the pharmaceutical regimen to be prepared and dispensed by the nursing personnel. The ethnographic study in the hospital service describes the introduction process of this tool from the perspective of the daily activities of the nursing staff. The article highlights a number of difficulties the users are facing and describes the solutions they create, in particular the “compensation strategies” they develop for turning the tool operational, reliable and efficient. The article also shows that the compensation strategies the users are creating in situ are partly invisible for the designers of the software. Distant from the daily activities of the users, the software designers neither perceive the problems involved with the use of the product, nor do they perceive the locally created solutions. They ascribe the performance of the tool to the quality of its conception and possibilities of improvement. This article invites the readers to reflect about what turns an information system efficient and effective and about the lessons learned for the conception of these tools.
TL;DR: This literature review about the psychophysiology of pain aims to elucidate the ways of action of this phenomenon and its relation with behavioral alterations.
Abstract: The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage”. The sensory aspect of pain is associated with the transmission of the painful impulse called nociception. The emotional aspect, on the other hand, is related to the behavioral responses to pain. Pain warns us about some impending danger, protecting our organism and indicating limits. Besides inducing physical anomalies, pain can interfere with the psychological equilibrium of the individual. This literature review about the psychophysiology of pain aims to elucidate the ways of action of this phenomenon and its relation with behavioral alterations. The management of pain is based on its etiology, physiopathology and repercussions. In addition to the use of analgesics and adjuvants, the therapy should include non-pharmacological tools such as physiotherapy and rehabilitation as well as psychotherapeutic procedures.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss informed consent, its evolution, its main challenges, and its theoretical assumptions, and expose the traditional justification of IC as conveyed by the Belmont Report, as well as a frequent simplification of this justification that focuses only on the deliberative aspect of IC.
Abstract: This article dicusses informed consent (IC): its evolution, its main challenges, and its theoretical assumptions. This process involves the interrelation of IC with the history and evolution of research ethics, and with some abuses committed in biomedical research. The article also presents the objections to IC, especially those related to its implementation in developing countries. It also approaches the epistemological problems and those related to the capacity of acting, given the background conditions in which IC is obtained. Furthermore, the article exposes the traditional justification of IC as conveyed by the Belmont Report, as well as a frequent simplification of this justification that focuses only on the deliberative aspect of IC, in which the emphasis on the autonomy or deliberation supposes an inadequate view of research subjects.
TL;DR: The jury is still out on whether post-trial obligations in the form of access to drugs for clinical trial participants is the best, or even a good way, to avoid exploitation in medical research.
Abstract: In its essence, post-trial obligations describe a duty by research sponsors to provide a successfully tested drug to research participants who took part in the relevant clinical trials after the trial has been concluded. In some instances,this duty is extended beyond the research participants. This article is divided into three main parts. The first part outlines the legal basis for post-trial obligations by looking at international guidelines, including those issued by the World Medical Association. National legislation is exemplified through resolutions and guidelines issued by Brazil and South Africa respectively. The second part analyses the ethical foundation for post-trial obligations, in particular the attempt to minimize exploitation of research subjects. The third part raises obstacles and challenges for the implementation of post-trial obligations. The jury is still out on whether post-trial obligations in the form of access to drugs for clinical trial participants is the best, or even a good way, to avoid exploitation in medical research.
TL;DR: The authors examines how the science and practice of biomedicine is shaped through its engagements in various African contexts, focusing regionally on Ivory Coast, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, and South Africa.
Abstract: This research programme examines how the science and practice of biomedicine is shaped through its engagements in various African contexts. We regard biomedicine as a circulating set of technologies, practices, and ideas that – as a by-product of prevention and healing – links individual bodies to the political order. We take Africa to be central for understanding global shifts in the making of bodies and subjectivities as well as of social, political, and juridical forms of governance exactly because the continent is so marginalised in the global political economy and thus represents a site of intense conflict and experimentation. Sociologists and anthropologists of medicine have begun to scrutinise biomedicine through studies of laboratory and clinical life in the West. There has, however, been little scrutiny of biomedicine on the more difficult terrains of non-Western countries where humanitarian crises and complex emergencies involving refugees, wars, and epidemics are common. Our programme, which focuses regionally on Ivory Coast, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, and South Africa, aims to fill this gap.
TL;DR: A recent controvérsia no British Medical Journal discutiu se a Declaração de Helsinque estaria morta (Schüklenk 2007) as mentioned in this paper, a documento proposto pela Associação Médica Mundial em 1964 as a resposta to the atrocidades cometidas by médicos during o regime nazista.
Abstract: Uma recente controvérsia no British Medical Journal discutiu se a Declaração de Helsinque estaria morta (Schüklenk 2007). O documento foi proposto pela Associação Médica Mundial em 1964 como uma resposta às atrocidades cometidas por médicos durante o regime nazista. Esses foram crimes de guerra, mas potencializados pelo espírito do progresso científico que seria conquistado por meio da experimentação sem limites éticos em populações vulneráveis. Nesses mais de quarenta anos, a Declaração de Helsinque tornou-se um texto de referência para os mais importantes documentos internacionais de regulação da ética em pesquisa. Ela não apenas orienta a pesquisa médica, mas constitui um registro ético de quais princípios e proteções devem ser garantidos em qualquer pesquisa com seres humanos. O debate sobre a atualidade da Declaração de Helsinque foi provocado por uma carta que anunciava “a Declaração de Helsinque está morta”, uma alusão à sua aparente ineficácia em orientar a pesquisa internacional com seres humanos (Noble Junior 2007). Uma enxurrada de cartas chegou ao periódico, em um claro indicativo do quanto o documento ainda é uma referência para o debate sobre ética em pesquisa. Alguns dos pontos discutidos nas cartas, assim como neste Suplemento Temático sobre ética em pesquisa, são questionamentos em pauta na literatura internacional em bioética: desde a legitimidade da declaração para regular a pesquisa em todos os campos disciplinares, pois ela foi um documento proposto por médicos para médicos, até sua força para antecipar algumas situações concretas de riscos envolvidos nas pesquisas clínicas com populações vulneráveis. A verdade é que nenhum instrumento de regulação ética foi objeto de tantas discussões e publicações quanto a Declaração de Helsinque. Andréa Sugai Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brasil anis@anis.org.br Apresentação
TL;DR: This literature review about the psychophysiology of pain aims to elucidate the ways of action of this phenomenon and its relation with behavioral alterations.
Abstract: The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage”. The sensory aspect of pain is associated with the transmission of the painful impulse called nociception. The emotional aspect, on the other hand, is related to the behavioral responses to pain. Pain warns us about some impending danger, protecting our organism and indicating limits. Besides inducing physical anomalies, pain can interfere with the psychological equilibrium of the individual. This literature review about the psychophysiology of pain aims to elucidate the ways of action of this phenomenon and its relation with behavioral alterations. The management of pain is based on its etiology, physiopathology and repercussions. In addition to the use of analgesics and adjuvants, the therapy should include non-pharmacological tools such as physiotherapy and rehabilitation as well as psychotherapeutic procedures.
TL;DR: This article presents two architectures for information gathering systems on restricted Web domains, for example the academic or the biologic domain, showing the feasibility and portability between domains of the presented solution besides presenting a high degree of reuse during the portability.
Abstract: This article presents two architectures for information gathering systems on restricted Web domains, for example the academic or the biologic domain. This text processing is based on the use of domain-related ontologies employing them as a well-defined and understandable semantic model for the software. If, on one hand, the solution here presented cannot be scaled to the entire Web, on the other hand, the offered services are more versatile and precise and able to combine information with well-defined relationships distributed over the Web. The presented systems are still able to draw inferences about the information present in the Web about these domains. As a proof of concept, we present experiments with good results in two distinct domains, showing the feasibility and portability between domains of the presented solution besides presenting a high degree of reuse during the portability.
TL;DR: The aim of this article is to review the data related to the immune response in patients with tuberculosis and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis and to show how these findings can contribute to the development of new diagnostic strategies and/or vaccines to control the disease.
Abstract: It is estimated that one third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In 2005, the World Health Organization estimated that eight million people died from tuberculosis worldwide. The official indicators point to a decline in tuberculosis rates in the past century but since 1990 the incidence rates are increasing again. Despite the existence of medicines effective in the control of tuberculosis, the cases of multi-drug resistance have increased worldwide. Recently the problem became even worse with the emergence of strains extremely resistant to drugs, responsible for what the WHO calls XDRTB (extensively drug resistant tuberculosis). The only vaccine available against this disease, the BCG vaccine, is efficient in preventing severe forms of tuberculosis in children. Its efficiency in adults however varies considerably and it has been demonstrated that revaccination does not increase the degree of protection in adolescents and adults. Various studies demonstrated that, in the attempt to contain the infection, the host cells develop immunoregulatory and mycobactericide mechanisms, and that failures in these mechanisms allow the disease to advance. The aim of this article is to review the data related to the immune response in patients with tuberculosis and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and to show how these findings can contribute to the development of new diagnostic strategies and/or vaccines to control the disease.
TL;DR: Assessment of Quality of Life within patients with a newly diagnosed inoperable lung cancer and comparing the QOL scores with the findings from a qualitative interview study point out the importance of identifying the different domains of QOL from patients’ perspectives.
Abstract: The aims of this study were to assess Quality of Life (QOL) within patients with a newly diagnosed inoperable lung cancer and then comparing the QOL scores with the findings from a qualitative interview study. A mixed method descriptive concurrent triangulation design was used to achieve the specific aims. Twenty-three patients participated. Quality of life was assessed with two questionnaires; the European Organization Research and Treatment of Cancer, EORTC-C30 and supplement lung cancer-specific module, the QOL-LC-13. Data were analysed in accordance with procedures recommended by the EORTC. These results were then compared with findings from a qualitative interview study. EORTC-QLQ-C30 + LC-13 all questionnaires were completed, since there were just 23 respondents, mean values at an individual level were calculated. Quality of Life was scored by the patient to a mean score of 4.5. In the interviews QOL was expressed as living as usual. It seems as regarding measurement of functional scales and global QOL there are similar findings using a questionnaire or a qualitative interview. Hence, the qualitative interview gave more multiplicity and deeper understanding about the different domains. The findings of this comparison, point out the importance of identifying the different domains of QOL from these patients’ perspectives.
TL;DR: This essay describes and reflects upon some typical features of the animal-researchers relation in the settings of scientific animal experimentation and focuses on the relevance of the living body of the used mice for the characteristic ambivalence of the scientists’ perception of them.
Abstract: This essay describes and reflects upon some typical features of the animal-researchers relation in the settings of scientific animal experimentation. The relationship between researchers and “their lab-animals” is highly ambivalent. On one hand animals are reduced to some kind of technological tools, data bearing analytical animals. On the other hand they certainly remain living natural animals cared for and object of emotional attachments. Scientists are building up a certain emotional distance towards their lab-animals, but nevertheless keep some kind of emotional relationship with them. After a description of routines with mice in an immunology laboratory, I will focus on the relevance of the living body of the used mice for the characteristic ambivalence of the scientists’ perception of them.
TL;DR: In this paper, the main challenges involved in the ethical review of social research projects that use qualitative techniques for gathering data are analyzed, and the need for specific ethical guidelines for social research is also considered.
Abstract: This article analyzes the main challenges involved in the ethical review of social research projects that use qualitative techniques for gathering data. The Brazilian ethical review system was constructed having biomedical sciences as the main reference. This article goes over some of the main points of ethical tension in social research by discussing five classic cases in human and social sciences. It supports the possibility of social research being included in the current ethical review system, as long as there is a sensitization of the ethics committees regarding the methodological particularities imposed by qualitative techniques. Finally, the need for specific ethical guidelines for social research is also considered.
TL;DR: A new financing standard calculation model is put forth for the new cooperative medical schemes (NCMS) that analyzes the dynamic relationship between NCMS financing standards, reimbursement proportion, disease coverage, and the NCMS reimbursement mode.
Abstract: This paper puts forth a new financing standard calculation model for the new cooperative medical schemes (NCMS). The chief aim of this new model analyzes the dynamic relationship between NCMS financing standards, reimbursement proportion, disease coverage, and the NCMS reimbursement mode.
TL;DR: Measuring science has become an "industry" as mentioned in this paper, and the most cherished statistics were thereafter money devoted to research and development (R&D) which was thereafter the most valuable statistics.
Abstract: Measuring science has become an ‘industry’ When, how and why did science come to be measured in the first place? How did a “cultural” activity – science – long reputed to be not amenable to statistics, come to be measured? The statistics owes its existence to the context of the time: 1) measuring the contribution of great men, among them scientists, to civilization, and improving the social conditions of scientists; then 2) science policy and the efficiency of investments in research Before the 1920s, it was scientists themselves who conducted measurements on science The statistics collected concerned men of science, or scientists, their demography and geography, their productivity and performance, and were used to promote what was called the advancement of science In the 1940s and after, the kind of statistics collected changed completely It was no longer scientists who collected them, but governments and their statistical bureaus The most cherished statistics was thereafter money devoted to research and development (R&D)
TL;DR: The aim of this article is to review the data related to the immune response in patients with tuberculosis and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis and to show how these findings can contribute to the development of new diagnostic strategies and/or vaccines to control the disease.
Abstract: It is estimated that one third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In 2005, the World Health Organization estimated that eight million people died from tuberculosis worldwide. The official indicators point to a decline in tuberculosis rates in the past century but since 1990 the incidence rates are increasing again. Despite the existence of medicines effective in the control of tuberculosis, the cases of multi-drug resistance have increased worldwide. Recently the problem became even worse with the emergence of strains extremely resistant to drugs, responsible for what the WHO calls XDRTB (extensively drug resistant tuberculosis). The only vaccine available against this disease, the BCG vaccine, is efficient in preventing severe forms of tuberculosis in children. Its efficiency in adults however varies considerably and it has been demonstrated that revaccination does not increase the degree of protection in adolescents and adults. Various studies demonstrated that, in the attempt to contain the infection, the host cells develop immunoregulatory and mycobactericide mechanisms, and that failures in these mechanisms allow the disease to advance. The aim of this article is to review the data related to the immune response in patients with tuberculosis and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and to show how these findings can contribute to the development of new diagnostic strategies and/or vaccines to control the disease.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define a new way of knowledge generation called "mode 3" to differentiate it from Mertonian (Mode 1) and Gibbons' (Mode 2) ways of doing science.
Abstract: A collateral effect of the globalization of the economy is the “globalization of science”, in the sense that part of it works at the service of the global economy. Part of the scientific production thus appears to be linked to the needs of the global markets. However, in the past 20 years, new alternative ways of “doing science” have emerged throughout the world whose most important characteristic is their intimate relationship with the solution of felt problems linked to local or regional communities. Although they share some of the characteristics of “Mode 2” research, as defined by GIBBONS et al (1994), they differ drastically in the sense that they really are socially responsible. These new forms are a response to the need to make scientific research more participative, more closely linked to the groups that would be affected by its results, incorporating thus in the decision-making process, not only the researchers themselves, but also those agents that would be directly affected by its products. This paper reflects upon an experience that currently takes place in Mexico, where research is intimately linked to the learning function, and is strongly rooted into the New Information and Communication Technologies (NICT). This form of doing “research in the service of humanity” is consistent with an alternative definition of development that is not necessarily linked to “growth”, as traditionally reflected in economic statistics. Development is not a question of what one has, but of what one can do with what one has. Development is the ability and desire to use what is available to continuously improve one’s quality of life (ACKOFF, 1974). Projects like the one described here provide a sense of progress in the right direction, in the direction of true development. We call this way of knowledge generation “Mode 3”, to differentiate it from Mertonian (Mode 1) and Gibbons’ (Mode 2) way of doing science. Mode 3 is a mode of knowledge production whose distinctive characteristic is a commitment to be at the service of mankind.