Showing papers in "Social Indicators Research in 1997"

Measuring quality of life: Economic, social, and subjective indicators

Abstract: Thinkers have discussed the “good life” and the desirable society for millennia. In the last decades, scientists offered several alternative approaches to defining and measuring quality of life: social indicators such as health and levels of crime, subjective well-being measures (assessing people's evaluative reactions to their lives and societies), and economic indices. These alternative indicators assess three philosophical approaches to well-being that are based, respectively, on normative ideals, subjective experiences, and the ability to select goods and services that one desires. The strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches are reviewed. It is argued that social indicators and subjective well-being measures are necessary to evaluate a society, and add substantially to the regnant economic indicators that are now favored by policy makers. Each approach to measuring the quality of life contains information that is not contained in the other measures.

Poverty, Inequality and Deprivation in South Africa: An Analysis of the 1993 SALDRU Survey

Abstract: This paper analyses poverty and inequality in South Africa based on data from a comprehensive multi-purpose household survey undertaken in 1993 to provide baseline statistics on poverty and its determinants to the new government. The paper shows that South Africa has among the highest levels of income inequality in the world and compares poorly in most social indicators to countries with similar income levels. Much of the poverty in the country is a direct result of apartheid policies that denied equal access to education, employment, services, and resources to the black population of the country. As a result, poverty has a very strong racial dimension with poverty concentrated among the African population. In addition, poverty is much higher in rural areas, and particularly high in the former homelands. Poverty among female-headed households and among children is also higher than average. Moreover, poverty is closely related to poor education and lack of employment. The poor suffer from lack of access to education, quality health care, basic infrastructure, transport, are heavily indebted, have little access to productive resources, and are heavily dependent on remittances and social transfers, particularly social pensions and disability grants. The paper uses an income-based definition of poverty for most of the analysis. In addition, it develops a broad-based index of deprivation including income, employment, wealth, access to services, health, education, and perceptions of satisfaction as its components. While on average the two indicators correspond fairly closely, the income poverty measure misses a considerable number of people who are severely deprived in many of the non-income measures of well-being. This group of severely deprived not identified by the income poverty measure consists predominantly of Africans living in rural areas, concentrated particularly in the province of KwaZulu/Natal.

Toward a conceptual framework for assessing progress toward sustainability

Abstract: Through the past half-century, much effort in a variety of disciplines, has been put to developing an approach to assessing change that pushes beyond an emphasis on economic signals to include a more complete treatment of human and ecosystem wellbeing. This challenge lies at the very heart of reporting on progress toward sustainability. Key to addressing this challenge is developing an effective conceptualization of the human-ecosystem relationship. The results of a review of 29 conceptual models that address the human-ecosystem relationship are presented. These results are used to develop a conceptual approach to assessing progress toward sustainability that: (1) builds on a number of common features drawn from these models; (2) is founded on a value set that insists on parallel care and respect for people and the ecosystem together; and (3) is consistent with systems ideas.

Measuring Quality of Life

Abstract: This paper considers quality of life (QOL) to be a global, yet unidimensional, subjective assessment of one's satisfaction with life. This conceptualization is consistent with viewing QOL assessments as resulting from the interaction of multiple causal dimensions, but it is inconsistent with proposals to limit QOL to health-related quality of life (HRQOL). We test the unidimensional yet global conceptualization of QOL using data from coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) patients. The Self-Anchoring Striving Scale (SASS) and four other indicators derived from the literature, all seemed to function as indicators of a single concept (QOL) that was repeatedly drawn upon as the patients determined their responses to these indicators. However, only about half the variance in each indicator was attributable to that common QOL source. Several structural equation models are used to assess whether the superior performance of the Life 3 indicator is an artifact of the repetition of an item within this indicator. The data convincingly indicate that the superior performance is not a memory artifact, and that even the repetition of an identically worded item prodded the patients into drawing yet again upon the same QOL factor that grounded all the other measures.

Children's rights and children's quality of life: conceptual and practical issues

Abstract: Social representations of childhood are presented briefly, and the Convention of the Rights of the Child of the United Nations is analysed as an opportunity to change some representations that make adults think of children as a different, less important category of people. If the Convention becomes a reality, it is considered that children's well-being and children's quality of life should improve. The need of social indicators and of data from children's own perspective is discussed -- as for example research data on children's perceptions and evaluations of their own rights --. Implementation and monitoring the Convention is analysed as an important challenge for the academic community. Some important aspects to be considered from the international perspective are presented, selected among the preliminary conclusions of some country case studies of an international project actually trying to develop children's rights indicators.

Has livability of Japan gotten better for 1956-1990? : a DEA approach

Abstract: This paper presents an approach for time-series livability assessment using DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis), a mathematical programming technique for measuring the relative efficiency of DMUs (Decision Making Units) with multiple inputs and multiple outputs Regarding each year as a separate DMU in DEA, and replacing the inputs and the outputs with negative and positive social indicators respectively, we evaluate Japan's livability for the period 1956–1990 Results of the analysis using eight social indicators identify 20 DEA livable years out of the 35 and find eight best-balanced years It is concluded that DEA, which enables non-uniform, multi-dimensional and relative evaluation, can be a valuable analytic tool in quality-of-life research as well

Social Development Trends in Europe, 1970–1994: Development Prospects for the New Europe

Abstract: The European region is undergoing dramatic social change. Among other regional and international forces, these changes are rooted in: the collapse of the former Soviet Union; the sudden appearance of a large number of “new” – mostly poor and politically unstable – European nations; and, the emergence of economic trading blocs in North America and Asia. At the same time, the majority of “established” European nations are experiencing sluggish rates of economic growth, moderate to high levels of inflation, high unemployment, escalating demands on public social services, and low fertility in combination with high rates of population aging and immigration from developing countries. Despite the seriousness of the dilemmas confronting the region, European development accomplishments of the past 25 years suggest that the region's leaders already possesses the resources required to solve its complex, social, political, and economic challenges.

Surviving the Transition: Trends and Perceptions of Crime in South Africa

Abstract: Crime and violence have dominated South Africa’s transformation over the past two decades. High crime rates cause widespread feelings of insecurity and fear which undermine popular confidence in the democratisation process. Considering both trends and public perceptions, this paper explores changing crime levels over the past decade, elaborating on the problems associated with crime statistics in South Africa, and the salience of the transition for current crime levels. Data is drawn from official police statistics and from victimisation and other surveys. Crime has been increasing gradually in South Africa since 1980. It is, however, since 1990 and not more recently as is popularly believed, that levels have risen sharply. An examination of the statistics shows that despite general increases, not all crimes have been committed with equal frequency and not all areas of the country are similarly affected. These trends are a product of the political transition and are associated with the effects of apartheid and political violence, the breakdown in the criminal justice system and more recently, the growth in organised crime. High crime levels are taking their toll on South Africans. Surveys show that crime rather than socio-economic issues now dominates people’s concerns, and that fear of crime is increasing. Currently, fewer people feel safe and believe the government has the situation under control than in previous years. Faced with widespread unemployment on the one hand, and the prospects of development on the other, levels of property crimes will probably continue to increase. While violent crime levels should decline over the medium term, improved relations with the police and a culture of reporting crimes like rape and assault may result in more crime being recorded.

Predictors of Life Satisfaction among Urban Iranian Women: An Exploratory Analysis

Abstract: This paper explores life satisfaction among married and unmarried Iranian women in urban areas. Data is analyzed from a sample of 335 women of which 61% are married and 39% are unmarried (i.e., single, divorced, or widows). Data is collected through the use of self-reported questionnaires administered during 1992 and 1994. A series of path analysis and cross tabulations suggest that for married women life satisfaction is directly linked to their satisfaction with marriage, employment, and their leisure experiences. There is an inverse relationship between satisfaction and the women's activity, however. For unmarried women, satisfaction is affected by their leisure experiences and educational level. The study suggests that any effort to reduce or increase the educational, employment, or leisure activities of women will directly affect women's general satisfaction and therefore affect Iranian society as a whole.

“A Difficult Life”: The Perceptions and Experience of Poverty in South Africa

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide a fuller and more integrated understanding of poverty based on the results of a nation wide participatory study recently completed in South Africa. A surprisingly consistent view of poverty emerges from the study which includes social isolation, malnourished children, crowded homes, the use of basic energy sources, no employment, and fragmented households. A clear image of what results from extreme poverty also emerges comprising continuous ill health, arduous and often hazardous work for virtually no income, no power to influence change, and high levels of anxiety and stress. The article concludes that conventional definitions of poverty do not fully describe the experience of poverty as analysed by the poor themselves. Instead, the multidimensional nature of poverty suggests that three basic concepts would be useful in any analysis of extent, nature and persistence of poverty. These are sufficiency, access and vulnerability.

Culture as a Moderator of Overall Life Satisfaction—Life Facet Satisfaction Relationships

Abstract: The purposes of this study were to (a) provide additional competitive tests between three models of relationships between overall and life facet satisfaction [Bottom-Up (BU), Top-Down (TD), and Bidirectional (BD) models], and (b) explore whether culture moderates these relationships. Models were tested using data collected as part of Michalos’ (1991) global study of student well-being from samples of college students in 32 different countries. The BD model received strongest support in 29 of the 32 samples (countries); the TD model was most strongly supported in the remaining 3 samples. Cluster analyses of samples in which the BD model was supported indicated a 7-cluster solution of reasonably homogeneous sets of OLS-LFS relationships. However, clusters were not easily interpretable in terms of evident cultural commonalities. We conclude that (a) a BD model describes OLS-LFS relationships globally, (b) and although culture appears to moderate OLS-LFS relationships, (c) additional research is needed to explain why.

The controllability of negative life experiences mediates unrealistic optimism

Abstract: Two studies examined the impact of negative life experiences on relative risk judgements In Study 1 (n = 80) and Study 2 (n = 100), victims were less optimistic about recurrences of problems already experienced than about other types of potential problems, supporting an availability mechanism for unrealistic optimism In Study 2, controllable negative experiences increased recurrence optimism but uncontrollable negative experiences did not, illustrating the mediating role of perceived control on the relationship between negative life experiences and optimism

The Future Direction of Social Indicator Research

Abstract: L'A. propose un compte-rendu des interventions proposees lors de la conference mondiale sur la qualite de la vie organisee a Prince George au Canada du 22 au 25 aout 1996. Il souligne que les specialistes se sont efforces, dans ce cadre, d'envisager l'utilite des indicateurs socio-economiques. Il retrace l'histoire de la tradition de recherche qui a contribue au developpement de ces indicateurs. Il estime que les debats autour de la qualite de la vie doivent apparaitre comme des preoccupations politiques fondamentales. Il met en exergue le caractere democratique des recherches menees sur les questions sociales et leur role actif en ce qui concerne la formation de l'opinion. Il se demande de quelle maniere les indicateurs sociaux peuvent etre redefinis. Il preconise l'etablissment d'indicateurs economiques et sociaux concus a la fois a un niveau national et international. Il examine les systemes nationaux d'enquete integree. Il montre que les enquetes comparatives connaissent une grande expansion

The shape of south african society and its challenges

Abstract: South Africa’s negotiated settlement and its transition to democracy reads like a modern fairy tale. A brief review of South Africa’s social indicators serves to temper some of optimism about the country’s future. The indicators reflect the society’s quality of life which has been shaped by its turbulent history. Political “caste formation”, changing political alliances, the reforms intended to forestall the demise of apartheid, and the race for global competitiveness have left indelible marks on the society’s social indicators. A comparison of living conditions in South Africa with those of roughly comparable economies indicates that the country lags behind in securing overall and widespread socio-economic upgrading of the population at large. A review of a cross-section of South African indicators and their trends over time shows that South Africa is still a very deeply divided society with a very large backlog in socio-economic development. There is evidence of breakdown in the society’s social cohesion. Popular expectations of future quality of life indicate that the euphoria following on the first democratic elections has been replaced by a sense of realism among all sectors of the population. It is concluded that quality of life as reflected in South Africa’s social indicators may get worse before it improves. The challenge will be to avoid new forms of economic “apartheid” which would depress the quality of life of marginal sectors of the population at the expense of the economically privileged.

Trauma and Mental Health in South Africa

Abstract: Prior to the first democratic elections, South Africa had experienced severe political violence. In this paper, we describe the effects of this violence on mental health, concentrating mainly on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and its symptoms, including reliving aspects of the trauma, avoiding situations which remind one of the experience, and heightened irritability. As part of a nationwide survey on health inequalities covering 4 000 South African households, questions were put to 3 870 respondents aged 16 to 64 years on their mental health status, feelings of powerlessness, exposure to violence and other traumatic situations, symptoms of PTSD and access to health care for these symptoms. Weighted survey results indicate that approximately five million adults (23% of the population aged 16 to 64 years) had been exposed to one or more violent events, for example, being attacked, participating in violence and witnessing one’s home being burnt. Just under four-fifths (78%) of those who had experienced at least one traumatic event had one or more symptoms of PTSD. This syndrome was found to be related to feelings of powerlessness, anxiety and depression and fair or poor self-ratings of emotional well-being. The authors concluded that healing the people of South Africa involves revealing the full extent of political violence that was committed during the apartheid era, confronting the effects of this violence, and establishing both professional and community structures to deal with it on a large scale, for example, the training of lay people to give counselling.

Measuring human wellness

Abstract: A conceptual framework is presented as a means to organize the many measures of human wellness that are now available. Health and human wellness are now often used interchangeably and there has been considerable augmentation of the indicators of progress – in addition to traditional indicators such as life expectancy and mortality rates, there is now an ability to use more positive indicators such as self-related health and self-esteem.

Basic minimum needs, quality of life and selected correlates : Explorations in villages in northern India

Abstract: For those involved in international development, one of the major goals is an improvement in the quality of life of the poor. Bhargava and Chakrabati (1992: 133) see the “primary objective of development at any given time is to improve the quality of life”. Indeed, the mission statement for an international development organization explicitly commits itself to the improvement of the quality of life for the “poorest of the poor” (DID, 1994). Social indicators, as “transeconomic” measures of quality of life, have “become an integral part of 'development indicators”' (Kao and Liu, 1984: 400; see, also Kahn, 1991). The connection between quality of life and development extends beyond the Third World. For example, in the U.S. Myers (1987) found quality of life influenced inmigration to Austin, Texas, thus affecting its economic development. Undoubtedly the majority of the connections between social indicators and development has been examined at the macro, or national levels using economic, health, education and other objective, comparative indices. Recognizing that such measures as GNP are oftentimes inadequate, assorted indices have been derived to gauge the changes in social development over time, e.g., the well-known Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) constructed by the Overseas Development Council (Morris, 1976). Many of these tend to focus on objective, material indicators (commodity possessions) as opposed to the more subjective ones (Anand and Ravallion, 1993). It is not the purpose of this paper to examine the various critics' arguments about the strengths and weaknesses of extant macro versus micro indices, but rather to lend support for the general need to assess development and social change through social indicators, whether macro or micro, objective or subjective. Ultimately, the purpose of the assessment should guide which social indicators are selected. The purpose of this paper is to examine several issues arising from the linkages between development efforts and quality of life (QOL). Using empirical data which were gathered to evaluate a community development project in the Garhwal region of Northern India, several issues, germane to both social indicators and development, will be investigated. These include: (1) the relationship between “Basic Minimum Needs” (BMNs) and QOL, (2) some methodological innovations for measuring both BMNs and QOL, and (3) selected correlates of BMNs and social indicators of QOL for Garhwali villagers. Before describing the project and its findings, we will first place it in the overall development context.

Volunteering for human service provisions : Lessons from Italy and the U.S.A.

Abstract: The increased reliance on volunteers in all industrialized democracies has been parallelled by growing fiscal crises in most states, widespread criticism of welfare, and increased demand for social services. While volunteer work is presumed to be an alternative to public services, its feasibility is not yet clear. We suggest that a cross-national comparison of two significantly different countries would provide more information about volunteerism as a partial substitute for public services. We compared the United States where volunteerism is a widespread tradition and Italy where there has been a “rediscovery” of volunteerism since the 1980s.

The impact of personality and social support on mental health for female patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Abstract: The relationship between personality traits, social support and mental health problems was studied in 138 female patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Structural equation modelling showed that instrumental support was uncorrelated with mental health problems. The effect of emotional support on mental health was spurious and due to personality traits. Companionship had a direct effect on mental health in addition to partially mediating the effects of both extra-version and neuroticism. However, the total effect of social support was moderate compared to a strong influence of neuroticism. The therapeutical implications are discussed.

A paradox in African American quality of life

Abstract: This study examines panel data from the National Survey of Black Americans with regard to the quality of life of African Americans between 1980 and 1992. Objective measures from current populations reports and census data (such as health, education, and income) indicate that the situation for African Americans has either stagnated or declined during this period. The present analyses show that African Americans' reports of general life satisfaction increased and there was a decline in happiness. There was no response bias that could account for the observed changes in well-being. Contrasts are drawn between these results and the existing well-being literature. Implications for further research are discussed.

Inequality in South Africa: Findings from the 1994 October Household Survey

Abstract: This paper argues that inequality and relative deprivation are the main problems to be addressed in the country, based on the denial of access to facilities and equal opportunities by the previous apartheid government. It focuses on the stark contrasts in living conditions and life-styles between blacks and whites, males and females, urban and non-urban people, the employed and the unemployed, and those doing formal versus those doing informal work. It is based on the findings of the 1994 October Household Survey (OHS) of South Africa’s Central Statistical Service. The findings show that Africans, who constitute 76% of the population, are more likely to be affected by inequality and relative deprivation. As many as 64% of Africans of all ages, and 70% of Africans aged between 0 and 15 years, live in non-urban areas. Africans are more likely than other population groups to live in shacks in urban areas and in traditional dwellings in non-urban areas, and to have less access to domestic infrastructure such as water, sanitation and electricity. They have also received less education, and are therefore less able to compete with others for jobs in the formal economy. The informal economy consists mainly of service and trade businesses, with little scope for new employment creation. The UNDP’s Human Development Index is much lower for Africans, compared to whites. On the basis of the findings, it is argued that large-scale development programmes are required to overcome the inequalities of the past. If this does not happen, there is a danger that there will be insufficient high-level skills in the country to sustain economic growth.

The Reconstruction and Development Programme: Success or Failure?

Abstract: The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) of the Government of National Unity (GNU) represents a major initiative to redress the imbalances of the past. The RDP consists of six principles and five key programmes which are outlined in this paper. It addresses, to a degree, the position of youth and women. It also stresses the importance of education and training. Various research studies that provide measurements of poverty against which the RDP can be evaluated have already been completed. They show the gross disparities in quality of life, before the April 1994 election, between people of different racial groups and urban and rural dwellers. The RDP can be assessed in both physical and psychological terms; and results of a longitudinal study measuring awareness, perceived delivery and expectations of the RDP among urban adults are given. A successful outcome for the RDP is seen as essential, if a stable South African society is to materialise. This paper sets out to examine whether this is feasible.

Aspects of the quality of life in black townships in a South African city : Implications for human development

Abstract: This article explores the use of quality of life studies for the analysis of development potential from a human development perspective. For this purpose, an empirical study was made of the assessment of quality of life in the black community in Bloemfontein, a medium-sized South African city. This was done by way of a questionnaire survey of a sample selected from poorer people living in areas formerly demarcated for black people by the apartheid policies of the previous government. The findings of the survey were analysed in such a way that conclusions could be drawn about the potential for human development in these communities. The conclusions show that quality of life studies seem to lend themselves for use as the analytic base for development policy-making from a human development perspective. It must be acknowledged, though, that this kind of application still needs much refinement, further analysis and experimentation before it can be said to finally pass the test which was attempted in this study.

Measuring Information Behavior: A Time Budget Survey in Japan

Abstract: This paper discusses the results of a time budget survey which was conducted nationwide in Japan in 1995 on ‘information behavior’, that is, the amount of time people spent communicating and using information media ranging from conversations to computers. We propose a three-dimensional time budget survey as a method for measuring information behavior in actual life. The method classifies information behavior into 24 categories and measures them with respect to three factors, i.e. time, location and purpose of behavior. Our survey revealed that the total time spent on information behavior was about seven hours per day, of which about 45% was spent watching TV. The displacement effect of PC use on TV watching was estimated by a “time-shift matching” design. The results demonstrated that use of a PC does not significantly affect TV viewing, despite a large difference in TV viewing time between PC users and non-users.

Values, performance and subjective well-being in the sustainability movement : An elaboration of multiple discrepancies theory

Abstract: Building on multiple discrepancies theory (MDT) as developed by Michalos (1985, 1991), the present study seeks to extend the application of MDT by operationalizing multiple discrepancies or “gaps” between values and performance for a representative group from the sustainability movement (back-to-the-landers), and then comparing the ability of the operationalized discrepancies, in competition with a series of demographic and process variables, to explain variance in a set of subjective well-being (SWB) measures. In the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and zero-order correlation equations, the value-performance discrepancies demonstrate consistent statistically significant relationships with the SWB measures. In the multiple regression models, however, the gap variables are not as prominent as other process variables, although they do add variance to SWB, validating the general utility of MDT. It appears, though, that there are other dimensions, many of them specific to the back-to-the-land way of life, that can compensate for the discrepancies between values and performance.

Determinants and indicators of health and well-being: tools for educating society

Abstract: Over the last 50 years, industrial countries have seen dramatic increases in the health and well being of their citizens. Life expectancy, infant and maternal mortality, key measures of population health, have shown continuous improvements since the turn of the century. Yet changes in the economic and social fabric such as increasing income disparity, psychological stressors such as high unemployment levels, and health care reforms with reductions in service provisions that are currently being experienced in industrialized countries, are threatening the sustainability of human health and well-being. With government resources dwindling for health services, expectations are increasing for communities to take charge of their own health and well-being. This paper presents some of the issues and dilemmas surrounding the sustainability of human health, and identifies the importance of developing educated and mobilized communities. By highlighting examples from the Community Health and Well-being in Southwestern Ontario: A Resource for Planning report, it suggests that the provision of key local health and well-being indicators is an important first step to community education and mobilization.

Human Well-Being in Chinese Cities

Abstract: Does human well-being vary substantially across regions within China and, if so, what forces have contributed to this variation? There are four macro-social change theories that shed light on this question: modernization theory, dependency/world-systems theory, state theory, and human ecology theory. No known study has examined all four theories simultaneously or used recent data. We fill this gap by reporting the results of a study examining the effects of industrialization, foreign penetration, state investment, and population growth (as well as several control variables) on the urban variation of three alternative forms of human well-being in China during the late 1980s. Results provide support for both state theory and human ecology theory, but they provide little or no support for modernization theory and dependency/world systems theory. Implications of the results are discussed.

South Africa's Emergent “Social Indicators Movement”

Abstract: South Africa’s transition to democracy in the 1990s has evoked a statistical awakening reminiscent of the “social indicators movement” of the 1970s. This special issue on South African quality of life seeks to capture this new fascination with social indicators and the manner in which social researchers, policy makers and the general public are approaching the task of social reporting in the post-apartheid era. As some contributors to this special issue on quality of life in South Africa note, an adjunct of apartheid has been the absence of comprehensive and credible social indicators to assist with policy formation. Fresh interest in capturing South African quality of life in statistics in the post-apartheid era has helped to fill the gap. Former mistrust of official statistics has been replaced with a — perhaps exaggerated — faith in the power of social indicators to guide and monitor the changes occurring in the new democracy.

Personal versus collective quality of life and South Africans' evaluations of democratic government

Abstract: In this paper, we examine the political consequences of quality of life, focusing on the link between perceived well-being and people's support for democratic government. We make two key distinctions. First of all, with regard to quality of life, we distinguish between assessments of personal, or household, quality of life, and assessments of collective (national, community) quality of life. Secondly, we follow David Easton in distinguishing between specific support (attitudes about specific leaders, parties and policies) and diffuse support (attitudes toward the political system in general). We find that personal quality of life is only weakly and inconsistently connected to specific or diffuse support. Perceptions of collective quality of life, however, are strongly related to both specific and diffuse support. Thus, South Africans are holding their government accountable to their perceptions of national well-being. Of greater concern, however, is that they also appear to be holding the democratic system accountable to such developments. Teaching people to distinguish between their evaluations of a specific government and their evaluations of the larger system of democratic government appears to be a key challenge confronting the development of a democratic political culture in South Africa.

Indicators of Democratization in Romania

Abstract: The process of democratization of the Romanian society, which started in December 1989, following the removal of the communist regime, has several peculiarities. The new authorities managed to stay in power until the autumn of 1996, after their left wing party (The National Salvation Front – FSN) won the free multi-party elections of 1990 in which several other parties participated too, and the elections of 1992 (this time under the name of Party of Social Democracy). A new Constitution was adopted and the institutions of the state of the right were established. Although marked by tension and conflicts, especially during 1990–1991, the process of democratization progressed, however, steadily, satisfying the formal indicators of democracy. The victory of the center and right-winged opposition in the elections of November 1996, revealed the alternance of parties in power and by this the consolidation of the democratic institutions in Romania.