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Class,!gender!and!the!sweatshop:!on!the!ne x us!b etw e e n!lab o u r !
commodification!and!exploitation!
Forthcoming+(2016)+in+Third&World&Quarterly,+special+issue+o n +‘C la s s +D y n a mics’+(accep te d+version)!
Alessandra!Mezzadri,!SOAS!!
!
Abstract!!
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Class,!patriarchal!norms!and!social!reproduction!!
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valueVgeneration) is# implicitly# embedded% in% a! wageVcentric' view' of# ethics.
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!Within& this&
schema,( the( main( struggle( for( '$(! S42R(3(&&T! %&! (0'(.%0R! '$(! 42R(V.(32'%/0.
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!This% take% on%
class%formation%devalues%reproductive+activities! V! i.e.$ ‘work’! as#opposed#to#‘labour’!
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e! that$
are$ reVlabelled& as& un productive& because& unpaid& or& unwaged.& The$ contribution$ by$ those$
engaging&in& these# activities# V! mainly! women& e! is# th us# seen# as# lying# outside# the# process#of#
labouring.+!
Second,' takes&on& class& centred&on& the& p ubl ic& sphere& and&on& production* un derstand) ‘social'
difference’!as#merely#produced(by(capitalism,"rather"than"also"structuring"its" f uncti oni ng"and"
possessing( a( certain( degree( of( autonomy.( Instead,( while( capitalism( has( triggered( distinct(
processes' of' ‘housewifisation’! and$ ‘domestication’! of# women
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," it" neither" ‘invented’!
patriarchal)no rms)nor)other# modes&of&social&oppression,&premised&on&race,&caste,ðnicity&
or# geographical#provenance.#Intersection ali ty#theory
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!has$ p artiall y$brought$this$point$home,$
stressing( the( need( to( look( at( the( way( in( which( forms( of( social( oppression( ‘intersect’! in#
experiences$of$subalterneity,$shaping$complex$‘geographi es*of*p ower’.
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However,( often,( mere( reference( to( ‘intersections’! risks% remaining% a% descriptive% exercise,%
simply' indicating' overlaps' between' social' categories,' as' in' a' Venn' diagram.' Th e' point,'
instead,)is) explaining&their& relation,&on& the& basis&of& key& analytical&concerns.& In & the& analysis&
developed'here,'the'key'concern'is:'how'do'we'understand'class'and'class'formation,'once'
we#account#for#forms#of#social#opp ression#like#patriarchal#norms?#This#question#does#not#aim#
at#suggesting#the#‘primacy’!of#class#per$se!vis?à?vis!other&social&categories
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,"a"position"that"I"
find%both%analytically%and%politically%unhelpful,%as%often%dismissive%of%social% concerns%other%
than% class% struggle% as% ‘secondary’." Instead," it" aims" at" underlining" the" need" to" understand"
class%as% a% relational%category%that,%as% argued%by% L eela% Fernandez%in% her%study%of% Calcutta’s"
jute%mills,% is% always% ‘marked' by' difference,' as'it' is' continually'been' manufactured'through'
!
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identity’
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." Overall," class" is" shaped" by" a" multi pli city" of" social" relations," and" experienced"
differently*by*different*social#groups.!
Arguably,* beyond*the* realm* of* economics,* some* Marxian* analyses* have* explicitly* stressed*
the$ multiplicity$ of$ labour$ relations$ at$ work$ under$ global$ capitalism,$ challenging$ narrow$
understandings+ of+ class.+ Loo king+ at+ processes+ of+ accumulation+ and+ proletarianisation* in*
historical* perspective,* Banaji* has* highlighted* the* coVexistence( of( ‘free’! and$ unfree’! labour'
throughout'the'history'of'capitalism.'In'a'similar'vein,'but'privileging'the'current'workings'of'
capitalism) in) its) neoliberal) phase,) Bernstein) has$ convincingly$ argued$ that$ contemporary$
processes'of' proletarianisation' result' in' the' formation' of' multiple' ‘classes& of& labour’," with"
different(relations(to(means( of( production,( subsistence( and( reproduction.
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!In# India,# these#
classes&are&set&on&a&continuum!encompassing+both+formal+and+informal+realms.
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!!
From%a%feminist%standpoint,%these%understandings%of%class%represent%an%initial%fruitful%avenue%
to#recover#social#reproduction#as#a#key#dimensi on#of#the#debate#on#the#relational)nature)of)
class." However," arguably,( in( these( accounts,( social( reproduction( remains( an( area( to( be(
‘discovered’,"in"either"its"relation"to"labour"‘unfreedom’!or#in#the#constitution#of#the#‘classes&
of# labour’."In" fact,"social" reproduction"does" not" simply"mean" labour" reproduction." Indeed,"
people%also% ‘live%outside% work’.
JJ
!They%may%not%from%the%point%of% view%of% capital,%but% they%
certainly*do*so*from*their*own*standpoint.*Nobody*simpl y*lives*to*labour,*even*when,*as*for*
large&swathe&of& the&working&poor
JY
,"this"ends"up"being"the"case"in"practice.%%!
A"number"of"feminist"analyses"and/or"contributions"from"female"scholars"may"be"deployed"
to#specifically#complement#Banaji’s"and"Bernstein’s"analyses." A"productive"engagement"with"
the$ relation$ between$ class$ and $ patriarchal$ norms$ would$ be$ one$ accounting# for# the#
multiplicity)of)relations)of) proletarianisation)V! or# forms&of&exploitation,"as"Banaji" puts"it"
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!V!
generated(by(capitalism,(but(at(the(same(time(also(engaging(with(a(broader(understanding(
of# social# reproduction#anchored# to#forms#of# social# oppression$ that$ mediate$class,$ but$ also$
preVexist&it.&For&this&purpose,&the&work&of&Federici&and&Mies,&and&that&of&HarrissVWhite&and&
Gooptu&stand&out&as& particu larly&helpful.&Mies&and&Federici&provide&solid&tools&to&anchor&the&
study&of&produ ction &to&social&reproduction.
JK
!HarrissVWhite&and&Gooptu&develop&an &an alysis&
of#class#premised#on#its#rel ation#with#social#oppression.
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!Let$us$review$these$contributions.$!
In# her$ feminist$ account$ of$ p rimiti ve$ accumulation$ in$ Europe,$ Silvia& Federici& highlights& how&
'$%&!+./*(&&!42&!S0/'!&%=+37!20!2**6=632'%/0!20,!*/0*(0'.2'%/0!/1!(O+3/%'253(!4/.I(.&!20,!
*2+%'23<! P'! 42&! 23&/! 20! 2**6=632'%/0! /1! ,%11(.(0*(&! 20,! ,%9%&%/0&! 4%'$%0! '$(! 4/.I%0R! *32&&N!
4$(.(57! $%(.2.*$%(&! 56%3'! 6+/0! R(0,(.N! 2&! 4(33! 2&! S.2*(T! 20, ! 2R(N! 5(*2=(! */0&'%'6'%9(! /1!
*32&&! .63(! 20,! '$(! 1/.=2'%/0! /1! '$(! =/,(.0! +./3('2.%2'T<
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!P0! 2! &%=%32.! 9(%0N! C2.%2! C%(&!!
2.R6(&!'$2'!2**6=632'%/0!&'2.'&!1./=!.(+./,6*'%9(!.(23=&N!4$%*$!.(+.(&(0'!'$(!1/60,2'%/0&!
1/.! 4/=(0T&! 325/6.! 2++./+.%2'%/0! %0&%,(! 20,! /6'&%,(! '$(! $/6&($/3,<! E.24%0R! 1./=! H/&2!
D6O(=56.RT&!9%(4!/1!*2+%'23%&=N!C%(&!'$(/.%&(&!2**6=632'%/0!2&!52&(,!/0!=63'%+3(!20,!S/0V
R/%0RT!+./*(&&(&!/1!,%&+/&&(&&%/0N!'2.R('%0R!4/=(0T&!60+2%,!325/6.!2&!4(33!2&!02'6.(<
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!!
Focusing)more)specifically)on)social)processes)structuring)class,)and! analysing(the(world(of(
India’s" ‘unorganised’! labour,( HarrissVWhite& and& Nandini& Gooptu& observe& how& soci al&
institutions'and'structural'differences'mediate'the'very'process'of'class'formation.'Overall,'
these% institutions% and% structures% represent% the% complex% constellation* of* inequalities* and*
social'differences'capital'can'exploit'to'proletarianise
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,"condemning"different"social"groups"
to# di stinct# ‘struggles( over( class’
Y"
." Karin" Kapadia’s" study" of" gemVcutters' in' Tamil' Nadu'
illustrates)this)point,)showing)how)female#gemVcutters'represented'a'wholly'different'type'of'
!
[!
working( class( from( their( male( counterparts(
Y?
e! in# short,# a# distinct# ‘class% of% labour’." This" is"
because'gender'ideologies'and'practices'mediated'women’s"entry"into"the"world"of"labour.""!
These% contributions# complement# analyses# stressing# the# multiplicity# of# processes# of#
proletarianisation.,By,insisting,on,social,reproducti on ,and,social,oppression,beyond,class,or,
preVexisting( class,( but( mediating( the( process( of( class( formation,( these( insights( move( the(
attention$ from$ processes$ of$ labour$ exploitation$ to$ processes$ of$ labou r$ commodification.$
Ultimately,* capital ism* ‘produces’! multiple( ‘classes& of& labour’! and/or' combinations'of' ‘free’!
and$‘unfree’!labour'by'deploying'already'socially'‘classed’!bodies.(This(observation$does$not$
aim$at$demeaning$the$relevance$of$exploitation,$but$it$does$suggest$the$urgency$to$revisit$its$
coVconstitutive*relation*with*commodification.*I*turn*to*this*issue*below*by*focusing*on*the*
role%patriarchal%norms%play%in%global%productio n%ci rcuits.$!
!
Commodification)and$exploitation!as#two#sides#of#the#same#(gendered)#coin!
An#understanding# of#class#accounting#for#both#social# reproduction# and#social#oppression#is#
crucial' to' capture' women’s" labouring" experiences" i n" glob al" production" circuits." Global"
commodity( chains( and( production( networks( are( ‘gendered’! socioVeconomic' formations,'
characterised* by* high* female* employment* rates* across* many* sectors,* like* garments
YJ
!or#
electronics.
YY
!In# fact,# chains# and# netwo rks# are# feminised# to# their# very# core,# far# beyond#
factory( realms.
Y[
!Patriarchal) norms) pave) their) inner) socioVeconomic' fabric,' even' when'
women’s" employment" rates" appear" as" marginal." Firstly," women" can" b e" incorporated" as"
homeVbased& labour,& far& more& ‘invisible’! than% factory% labour.% Secondly,% women’s" unpaid"
labour' may' be' mobilised' in' various' ways' within' the' production' process.' For' instance,'
women’s" unpaid" labour" in" familyVbased& units& may& be& crucial& for& the& survival& of& p etty&
commodity( production( inside( globalised( circuits.( It( may(work( as( a( repro ducti ve( subsidy( to(
the$productive$household.$The$study$of$global$production$networks$should$also$involve$the$
study&of&global&‘reproduction+networks’.
YK
!!
The$woman’s"question"in"production"e!and$that$of$ d isad vantaged$groups$in$general$V!initially'
presents'itself'as'a'question'of'differential'pricing."The"process"of"labouring"has"a"l ower"price"
whenever'‘contained’!in#a#feminine#body.#The#body#is#indeed#the#first%‘machine’!invented'by'
capitalism.
Y\
!Hence,& the& multiple& forms& of& exploitation
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!labouring* classes* experience* are*
structured( around( multiple( forms&of& labour' commodification." This" do es" not" mean" the" two"
processes'e! labour' commodification' and' exploitationV! can$ever$be$ separated,$as$ both$ take$
place&simultaneously&within&global&production&circuits.&!
In# contemporary# labour# debates,# instead,# narratives# counterpoising# commodification# and#
exploitation* have* gained* momentum,* based* on* relatively* polarised* understandings$ of$
Marxist(or(Polanyian(concerns(and(‘struggles’.
YL
!The$extent$to$which$one$can$conceptualise$
commodificati on* as* a* primarily* Polanyian* ‘concern’! and$ exploitation$as$ a$ primarily$ Marxist$
‘concern’! is# subject# to# intense# debate.# A# thorough# review# of# this# debate% goes% beyond% the%
scope& of& this& paper.
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!However,( one( can( argue( that( at( l east( when( it( comes( to( labouring(
experiences,*commodification* and*exploitation*cannot*be*separated;* they*are*two*sides* of*
the$ same$ coin.$ Groups$ subject$ to$ harsh$ forms$ of$ social$ oppression,& like& women,& already&
enter%Marx’s"‘abode&of&production’!with%a%lower%‘priceVtag’!stuck&to&their&body,&and&this&sets&
the$basis$for$higher$exploitation!rates.'In'short,'when'it'comes'to'women,'commodification'
and$exploitation$are$coVconstitutive*of*the!!"#!$%!&'!()*(+,-).$(/,&0('+,112(1.-)$0%&,3%)&4(!