In tracing a relatively unknown but important feature of the work of Friedrich Engels, this article offers a critical commentary on his lifelong engagement with the New Testament book of Revelation. Beginning with material from his late teens, when he was undergoing the long, slow process of giving up his Calvinist faith, Engels used the text for humor and satire, for polemics, and as a way to express his own exuberance. As the years unfolded, he would come to appreciate this biblical book in a very different fashion, namely, as a historical document that offered a window into earliest Christianity. Through three essays, one on Revelation, another on Bruno Bauer (from whom Engels drew increasingly as he grew older), and a third on early Christianity, Engels developed the influential argument that Christianity had revolutionary origins. In closing, I ask three questions: What is the abiding relevance of Engels‘s work? Where does it fall short? And what tensions does he open up in his thought by allowing ideas and beliefs to influence history? Boer: Revelation and Revolution: Friedrich Engels and the Apocalypse 3 Similarly Isaac Newton in his old age busied himself with expounding the Revelation of St. John. Engels 1973g: 337, 1987: 345 1 That the millennium was here depicted in earthly colours goes without saying. Even Revelation cannot rest content with such heavenly delights as sitting with a bare bottom on a damp cloud, twanging a harp with more or less gory hands and singing hymns to all eternity Engels 1973l: 277, 2004c: 329 The changing nature of Engels‘s attitudes toward The Revelation of Saint John the Divine, the last ―book‖ of the New Testament, signals the transformations in his own relationship with Christianity, from the intense, Calvinist faith of his youth to his appreciation of Christianity‘s revolutionary origins and potential. To uncover the importance of Revelation for Engels‘s own thought, I offer a critical commentary on his various dealings with that text. I begin by tracing his early uses of Revelation, especially in his letters, his poetry, and his writings on Schelling, in which we find Engels deploying Revelation for the sake of humor, satire, and his own exuberance—but not, it should be noted, in any way as a politicotheological tool. From that point, we leap to three crucial essays from his mature years: one on the Book of Revelation itself, another on Bruno Bauer, and another on early Christianity. These three essays show a very different, historical approach to this text that, by this date in Engels‘s view, provides the earliest evidence for the revolutionary origins of Christianity. Because Engels‘s biblical work is relatively unknown (except perhaps the essay on early Christianity), my engagement requires a good deal of exposition as a prerequisite for any critique, which in itself will be concerned with the abiding relevance, if any, of Engels‘s arguments. A SOFT SPOT FOR APOCALYPTICISM For almost two millennia, Revelation has been a favorite of all manner of Christian movements, many of them quite revolutionary. Full of the rich imagery of the final battle between good and evil, the beast and the whore of Babylon, the four horsemen and the seven scrolls, the lamb and the new Jerusalem, Revelation continues to be a ready resource for people who expect an imminent end to the world, who are oppressed, or who are keen to proclaim themselves prophets and gain 1 For the sake of thoroughness and further research, where Marx and Engels wrote first in German an item which was subsequently translated, I cite both references. On some occasions, a work has been published only in English, in which case I cite that source only. 4 Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion Vol. 6 (2010), Article 2 followers. As far as I can tell, none of these reasons counts for Engels. In fact, Engels‘s solid Calvinist upbringing would not have emphasized this text much. Suspicious of enthusiasm and millenarian frenzy, Calvinists prefer to focus on predestination, the task of the elect, the evils of the damned, and matters such as justification by faith through grace. 2 Of course, God would eventually destroy the damned, and Jesus would return. But Calvinists did not need him to do so now to save them from an intolerable situation. Yet Engels did resort to apocalypticism, especially the theme of the final battle between good and evil in all its gory detail. What catches my eye is that Engels uses Revelation in a number of ways: playfully, as critical satire, and as the positive celebration of a new era (in his own life and perhaps for Germany). As for the first use, we find a sustained play with Revelation in two letters to his one-time close friend and pastor, Friedrich Graeber: one from the beginning of their correspondence on February 19, 1839, and the other from the last letter dated February 22, 1841 (Engels 1975g, 1975h, 2008a, 2008b). In the first letter, Engels expresses mock horror at the news that his good friend the pastor actually plays cards. Engels throws a few biblical curses at Graeber and then portrays a vision like that of John the Divine (or, for that matter, the prophet Ezekiel). 3 What does he see? It is a great final battle between the King of the Orient, the prince of the Occident, and the Prince of the Sea—a rather more homely version of the battle between the archangel Michael, the Devil, and the Beast of the Sea in Revelation 12–13. Seven spirits appear— modeled on the seven angels of Revelation 8–10 and 14—but they turn out to be a little more earthly: Faust, Lear, Wallenstein, Hercules, Siegfried, Roland, and Mio Cid (with a turban). The whole parody becomes even more complex with the crisscrossing of Old Testament allusions: the children of Anak (Numbers 13:33, Deuteronomy 2:10), letters on the door in Hebrew (Daniel 5:5, 5:24–28), and being struck dumb (Ezekiel 3:26). The point of it all was that even though they may have brought the world to an end, nothing will stop the card players in their evil pastime. All this is good fun. The second letter is different (Engels 1975g, 2008a), for its playfulness is a rather poor camouflage for a more serious tone. Engels and Graeber, his childhood friend from Wuppertal, have become estranged since the time when they began their epistolary debates two years earlier, for now they are 2 For example, in over 800 pages of the modern edition of Calvin‘s 1559 Institutes (1960), a work saturated with the Bible, one finds just twenty-six references to Revelation. Calvin counsels against such millennial speculation, especially since it was rife in his own day among the radical Anabaptists (see Boer 2009). 3 ―On the nineteenth day of the second month of 1839, on the day when midday is at twelve o‘clock, a storm seized me and carried me afar and there I saw them playing cards‖ (Engels 1975h: 414, 2008b: 361) is playfully modeled on the beginning of Ezekiel‘s vision: ―In the sixth year, in the sixth month, on the fifth day of the month . . . the spirit lifted me up between earth and heaven and brought me in visions of God to Jerusalem‖ (Ezekiel 8:1, 3). Boer: Revelation and Revolution: Friedrich Engels and the Apocalypse 5 taking different theological directions. In a curious intersection where the apocalyptic battle at the end of the age wraps up a friendship, we return in this letter to the final battle between good and evil, between God and the devil. On one side stand evil Straussians and Hegelians (the side Engels had joined); on the other are the less capable orthodox—names we hardly recognize now, such as Tholuck, Hengstenberg, Neander, Nitzsche, Bleek, and Erdmann (Friedrich Graeber‘s preferred theologians). Yet despite portents of the great battle, such as the earth‘s eclipse and the storm raging through the forest, Graeber has not yet readied himself for combat with the ―critical-speculative devil‖ and his enormous following (Engels 1975g: 527, 2008a: 479). The problem, it seems, is that Graeber has already disengaged from their debates. Engels berates Graeber for his ―calm and detached‖ writing, as if nothing can stir the placidity of his orthodoxy. Engels, by contrast, wants a fight, and David Strauss—author of the bombshell known as Das Leben Jesu (Strauss 1835, 1902)—is the super-weapon with which he will knock down Graeber and any other orthodox champion. But Graeber, it seems, has already declined the struggle. We have already slipped from the playful use of the final apocalyptic battle to a more polemical use. The next occasion on which Engels engages Revelation is more fully polemical, and the humor starts to have some bite. It is in the long poem from 1842, The Insolently Threatened Yet Miraculously Rescued Bible (Engels 1975c, 1985c). For one who decided to give up his aspirations to be a poet in favor of direct political writing and an increasing fascination with martial matters, Engels has written a poem that is quite good. It is a narrative poem written with Edgar Bauer, brother of Bruno and member of ―The Free,‖ and its satire owes much to the style of Young Hegelian polemic. The poem sets a cracking pace, and the reader is drawn into the story (at least, I was). It begins with a Job-like opening (though not without some influence from Goethe) in which Satan slinks his way into heaven, upsets the heavenly chorus, and demands access to Bruno Bauer, radical biblical critic and leading Young Hegelian. God asserts that for all Bauer‘s research into the Bible, for all his doubts, he still remains faithful and will come through to truth as he sees the flaws of philosophy. The devil is not so sure and secures a chance to test Bauer‘s faith. Unlike the outcome in the prologue to the book of Job, Bauer does succumb to Satan, although it takes some persuasion. By the time Bauer begins lecturing again, he is a servant of the devil and sets the pious and atheistic students against one another. All of this eventually leads to a final

In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance

Revelation and revolution: Friedrich Engels and the apocalypse

Contemporary study of the New Testament and of Paul more specifically shows symptoms of avoidance of basic categories of Marxist analysis such as economic class, class struggle, and mode of production. The result is that discussions of economic and social realities are often so abstract and sanguine as to be misleading – an expression, from a Marxist point of view, of the shadow cast over biblical studies by capitalist ideology.

http://novaojs.newcastle.edu.au/ojsbct/index.php/bct/article/download/528/469

Diagnosing an Allergic Reaction: The Avoidance of Marx in Pauline Scholarship

In this article we investigate the missional potential of the two-volume book of Ezra-Nehemiah. We contend that the written word of God is a transforming power in society through the mediation of the church. This implies that spiritual renewal precedes social reconstruction. We examine this book historically, canonically and exegetically to lay a foundation for a missiological reflection on the results of this excursion in the field of biblical studies. We close with the formulation of some missional conclusions that serve as guidelines for the development of a relevant theology of mission. In hierdie artikel ondersoek ons die missionere moontlikhede van die tweedelige boek Esra-Nehemia. Ons stel dat die geskrewe woord van God ’n hervormende krag in die samelewing is deur die bemiddeling van die kerk. Dit impliseer dat geestelike vernuwing sosiale rekonstruksie voorafgaan. Ons doen historiese, kanoniese en eksegetiese ondersoek na die boek om ’n grondslag te le vir ’n missiologiese beskouing van die resultate van hierdie ekskursie in die Bybelwetenskapveld. Ons sluit af met die formulering van missionere gevolgtrekkings om te dien as wegwysers vir die ontwikkeling van ’n toepaslike sendingsteologie.

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Renewal and reconstruction: Holy Writ in Ezra-Nehemiah - A missional reading

Resistance against power: The pilgrim’s journey in three Sondergut parables in Luke 15 and 16. The aim of this essay is to explain the philosophical viewpoints of Michel Foucault concerning the power of knowledge and its consequences when individuals are subjectified into ‘docile bodies’. According to this perspective, resistance against power commences when the little stories of individuals are told in opposition to the master narratives of ideologies of power. The essay refers to Steve Biko and Martin Luther King whose stories of resistance against racism as an ideology of power serve as examples. Their examples of resistance are hermeneutically and heuristically applied to the interpretation of the parables in Luke 15 and 16. These parables are peculiar to Luke’s theology. The essay exposes the subjectifying of the identities of the ‘lost son’ and ‘father’, the ‘master’ and ‘steward’, and the ‘rich man’ and the ‘poor man’, as these heteronormative categories occur in parabolic stories in Luke 15 and 16. The essay concludes with a vision for Christians today on how to recognise power relationships and how to respond in a non-violent way to the dominant ideologies promoting power.

/pdf/verset-teen-mag-die-pelgrim-se-reis-in-drie-sondergut-1wpygxf1je.pdf

Verset teen mag : die pelgrim se reis in drie 'Sondergut' gelykenisse in Lukas 15 en 16

The use of biblical texts by politicians in recent years has led to a proliferation of critical publications by biblical scholars. Some focus on reconstructing the rhetoric itself, others on analysing the historical context while others still, on why and how the scriptures are used. A lack of an ideology critique dimension makes these analyses appear to be naive to the extent that they miss the element of the subversion of scriptures by politicians who use them. Biblical texts on the whole, are a product of an anti-establishment culture and where they are appropriated by the establishment, a hermeneutic of suspicion should apply. This paper utilises ideology critique as it reflects on the manner and motif behind the use of scriptures by politicians. It concludes that scriptures are subverted in order to force them to serve ideological ends.

background

/pdf/bible-subversion-an-ideology-critique-of-the-manner-and-1xpq8a439y.pdf

In the Shadow of Empire: Reclaiming the Bible as a History of Faithful Resistance

Citations

Revelation and revolution: Friedrich Engels and the apocalypse

Diagnosing an Allergic Reaction: The Avoidance of Marx in Pauline Scholarship

Renewal and reconstruction: Holy Writ in Ezra-Nehemiah - A missional reading

Verset teen mag : die pelgrim se reis in drie 'Sondergut' gelykenisse in Lukas 15 en 16

Bible subversion: An ideology critique of the manner and motif behind the use of scriptures by politicians

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