The Development of Parenting Efficacy Among New Mothers and Fathers

TLDR: The most robust predictors of maternalPostnatal efficacy included both prenatal efficacy, which significantly predicted postnatal efficacy independent of all other predictors including the current parenting context, and perceived infant temperamental reactivity as both a main effect and as buffered by social support.

Abstract: Predictors of prenatal and postnatal parenting efficacy were examined in a sample of 115 primiparous mothers and 73 fathers in an effort to examine the association between preexisting parental characteristics and prenatal efficacy and the association between prenatal characteristics and postnatal efficacy when aspects of the current parenting context are taken into account. The most robust predictors of maternal postnatal efficacy included both prenatal efficacy, which significantly predicted postnatal efficacy independent of all other predictors including the current parenting context, and perceived infant temperamental reactivity as both a main effect and as buffered by social support. This was not the case for fathers, whose postnatal efficacy was primarily a function of their amount of involvement in parenting tasks and social support. The differential predictors of mother and father efficacy as well as their implications for future research are discussed.

Figures

Table 3. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions Predicting Prenatal Efficacy

Figure 1. Proposed model of the predictors of prenatal and postnatal efficacy. Dashed lines indicate proposed moderating effects. LC indicates the predictor was included in the model tested by Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) and PH indicates the predictor was included in the model tested by Porter and Hsu (2003).

Table 2. Zero Order Correlations Among Predictor Variables and Parenting Efficacy

Table 4. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions Predicting Postnatal Efficacy

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics.

Full text

The development of parenting efficacy among new mothers and fathers
By: Esther M. Leerkes and Regan V. Burney
This is the peer reviewed version of the following article:
Leerkes, E. M. & Burney, R. V. (2007). The development of parenting efficacy among new
mothers and fathers. Infancy, 12, 45-67.
which has been published in final form at https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-
7078.2007.tb00233.x. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance
with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Use of Self-Archived Versions.
***© Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Reprinted with permission. No further
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Abstract:
Predictors of prenatal and postnatal parenting efficacy were examined in a sample of 115
primiparous mothers and 73 fathers in an effort to examine the association between preexisting
parental characteristics and prenatal efficacy and the association between prenatal characteristics
and postnatal efficacy when aspects of the current parenting context are taken into account. The
most robust predictors of maternal postnatal efficacy included both prenatal efficacy, which
significantly predicted postnatal efficacy independent of all other predictors including the current
parenting context, and perceived infant temperamental reactivity as both a main effect and as
buffered by social support. This was not the case for fathers, whose postnatal efficacy was
primarily a function of their amount of involvement in parenting tasks and social support. The
differential predictors of mother and father efficacy as well as their implications for future
research are discussed.
Keywords: parenting efficacy | parental characteristics | prenatal and postnatal parenting
Article:
Parenting efficacy, or confidence in one's ability to meet the needs of a child, is related to a
variety of positive outcomes for parents and children. In particular, parenting efficacy is
positively associated with maternal adjustment (Williams et al., 1987), active maternal coping
(Wells-Parker, Miller, & Topping, 1990), and sensitive or competent maternal behavior
(Bugental, Blue, & Cruzcosa, 1989; Donovan, 1981; Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1990; Teti &
Gelfand, 1991). Further, high efficacy buffers mothers from the negative effects of infant
temperamental reactivity on maternal sensitivity (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2003). Moreover,
high parenting efficacy is positively related to adaptive social emotional and cognitive child
outcomes (Coleman & Karraker, 2003; Donovan & Leavitt, 1989; Swick & Hassell, 1990).
Together, these studies suggest that high parenting efficacy is linked to optimal parent well-being

and behavior and child development during infancy (see Coleman & Karraker, 1997, for a more
comprehensive review). Despite this, few attempts have been made to identify the antecedents of
parenting efficacy, particularly for fathers.
In this study, we identify prenatal characteristics and experiences that influence the expectation
of parenting efficacy and examine these prenatal expectations in relation to postnatal efficacy,
taking into account actual parenting experience and features of the parenting context for both
mothers and fathers. This model is a combination and extension of two previous models of
mothers' parenting efficacy (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002; Porter & Hsu, 2003), both
influenced by Bandura's (1977) model of efficacy development.
THE PREDICTORS OF EFFICACY
According to Bandura (1977), several factors influence one's perceptions of efficacy. The
strongest of these is performance attainment, such that behavior resulting in successful
completion of a task enhances confidence in one's ability. This link between performance
attainment and efficacy is influenced by task difficulty in that extreme task difficulty may
undermine performance attainment and efficacy. Vicarious experience, or observing others
complete similar tasks effectively, enhances efficacy through modeling but to a lesser extent than
does one's own performance. Likewise, verbal persuasion, or being encouraged or praised by
others, may enhance efficacy, albeit weakly because it is not based on direct experience and may
in fact be counter to experience. Finally, emotional arousal affects efficacy beliefs because it
provides individuals with information about how likely they are to succeed; that is, feeling tense
and nervous is rarely associated with positive outcomes. Bandura proposed further that high
efficacy in one domain can generalize to other domains.
Figure 1. Proposed model of the predictors of prenatal and postnatal efficacy. Dashed lines
indicate proposed moderating effects. LC indicates the predictor was included in the model
tested by Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) and PH indicates the predictor was included in the
model tested by Porter and Hsu (2003).

The model of efficacy development used in this study, displayed in Figure 1, focuses on prenatal
experiences and characteristics of parents as they relate to efficacy beliefs prior to the infant's
birth and on changes in efficacy beliefs across the transition to parenthood as parents gain
experience with their own infant, develop perceptions of their infant's temperament, and receive
varying levels of social support for parenting tasks. Specifically, we propose that parents'
recollection of their own parents' warmth during childhood will promote prenatal efficacy as a
direct effect via vicarious experience and as an indirect effect through global self-esteem, which
will then generalize to higher prenatal efficacy. We predict that the amount of experience with
children will be positively associated with efficacy due to enhanced performance attainment, and
depressive symptoms will correlate negatively with prenatal efficacy as negative emotional states
undermine efficacy expectations. Next, we predict that remembered parental warmth, self-
esteem, previous experience with children, and depression will similarly predict postnatal
efficacy, but these effects will be mediated by prenatal efficacy expectations. We predict that
prenatal efficacy will be strongly related to postnatal efficacy, but that change in efficacy will
occur based on parenting experiences and features of the parenting context. In particular, the
level of involvement of parents in child-care tasks and social support for parenting should
enhance efficacy via performance attainment for the former and both verbal persuasion and
reductions in task difficulty for the latter. Finally, parents' perceptions of infant temperamental
reactivity may undermine efficacy via task difficulty particularly if other buffers (prenatal
efficacy, social support, and infant soothability) are absent.
Although the same model is tested for mothers and fathers, there is reason to believe that the
results may vary based on previously documented differences in mothers' and fathers'
preparation for and sense of self during the transition to parenthood. That is, given evidence that
men have fewer socialization experiences that prepare them for parenthood (e.g., babysitting:
Goodnow, 1988; see Parke, 2002, for a comprehensive review) and that being a parent is a less
central aspect of expectant fathers' identities than mothers' (Cowan & Cowan, 1992), it may be
that prenatal experiences and characteristics are less predictive of fathers' efficacy than mothers'
efficacy. In the next sections we summarize research that supports this model of efficacy
development.
Prenatal Characteristics and Experiences
Adult personality characteristics and the childhood experiences that contributed to them likely
affect efficacy beliefs. That is, individuals whose emotional needs are met during childhood
develop secure working models in which they view themselves as lovable and worthy,
contributing to a positive sense of self (Bowlby, 1973). In tum, a positive global sense of self
may enhance parenting efficacy consistent with Bandura’s (1977) view of domain generalization.
Consistent with this view, Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) reported that mothers whose own
emotional needs had been met by their mothers in childhood had higher parenting efficacy at 6
months postpartum and this effect was mediated by self-esteem. Alternatively, positive
interactions with parents in childhood may enhance efficacy directly through vicarious
experience or by modeling successful parenting strategies that enhance parenting performance
attainment (Bandura, 1977). Based on previous data suggesting that mothers' efficacy is most
influenced by how their mothers treated them in childhood (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002) and

that fathers primarily model the behavior of their fathers (Cox et al., 1985), we predict that
remembered parental warmth from the same-gender parent will predict parenting efficacy.
Depressive symptoms may also undermine efficacy expectations because of the negative pattern
of cognitions and attributions that characterize depression. That is, expectant parents who
experience elevated levels of depression may be inclined to make negative attributions about
their parenting, feel helpless to meet the needs of an infant, and perseverate on feelings of
inadequacy. Consistent with this view, a variety of previous research has linked depression and
neuroticism to reduced efficacy (Bornstein et al., 2003; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Donovan &
Leavitt, 1989; Gross, Conrad, Fogg, & Wothke, 1994; Porter & Hsu, 2003; Teti & Gelfand,
1991).
Given performance attainment is the strongest predictor of efficacy according to Bandura (1977),
it seems likely that experience caring for other children should enhance parenting efficacy.
Consistent with this view, Porter and Hsu (2003) reported a positive association between
previous experience with children and prenatal but not postnatal efficacy. They argued that
actual experience parenting one's own unique infant may make experience with other children
less relevant to postnatal efficacy. Others have reported that knowledge of infant development is
positively related to efficacy (Bornstein et al., 2003), and to the extent that experience with
children contributes to this knowledge base, this is another likely mechanism by which previous
experience with children may enhance parenting efficacy.
Finally, efficacy expectations are likely stable over time unless one encounters consistent
experiences that disconfirm them. Consistent with this view, previous research has demonstrated
stability in efficacy at multiple points in infancy (Elek, Hudson, & Bouffard, 2003; Hudson,
Elek, & Fleck, 2001; Ruble et al., 1990). Most relevant to the current model, Porter and Hsu
(2003) demonstrated that prenatal efficacy expectations predicted efficacy at 1 and 3 months
postpartum. This stability in efficacy suggests that identifying the predictors of prenatal efficacy
could be useful for intervention purposes; both to identify and target parents likely to experience
low parenting efficacy and to identify strategies to enhance parenting efficacy prior to the birth
of the infant.
Parenting Context and Experiences
Aspects of the parenting context, particularly infant temperament and social support, have also
been examined as predictors of parenting efficacy by virtue of task difficulty and verbal
persuasion. Infants perceived to be temperamentally reactive, defined as infants who are easily
and intensely distressed for long periods of time (Rothbart, 1981; Thomas & Chess, 1977), may
erode parents' feelings of confidence because they feel unsuccessful at soothing or engaging their
infant, making parents feel threatened or anxious (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Gross et al., 1994;
Raver & Leadbeater, 1999). In contrast, "easy" infants (i.e., those who are predictable,
communicate their needs effectively, show less distress, and are sociable) may make parents feel
good about their parenting by virtue of their positive response to their parents' efforts (Bornstein
et al., 2003; Goldberg, 1977). Consistent with this view, Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002)
reported negative associations among both infant distress to limits and to novelty with maternal
efficacy. Furthermore, Porter and Hsu (2003) reported a negative association between negative

infant temperament and maternal efficacy that remained a trend at 1 month and statistically
significant at 3 months, independent of previous measures of efficacy, further establishing the
proposed link between perceived temperament and parenting efficacy. In addition to these main
effects of temperamental reactivity, Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) reported that infant
soothability moderated the effect of temperamental reactivity on efficacy such that
temperamental reactivity correlated negatively with efficacy only when soothability was low.
Presumably an infant who is both easily distressed and difficult to soothe is most threatening to a
parents' efficacy.
Social support has also been identified as a correlate of parenting efficacy. Instrumental social
support, or direct assistance with parenting and other related household tasks, likely enhances
parenting efficacy by reducing the difficulty of parenting and increasing the odds of performance
attainment, whereas emotional support such as praise and encouragement may enhance efficacy
through verbal persuasion and by reducing negative emotional arousal (Cutrona & Troutman,
1986; Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002; Raver & Leadbeater, 1999). Moreover, social support can
act to reduce the negative effect of infant reactivity on efficacy (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002),
possibly by providing mothers with opportunities for respite from their infants allowing them to
return to parenting refreshed and encouraging them to persist in their parenting efforts. in
addition, given evidence that efficacy is stable over time, we examine the possibility that prenatal
efficacy also buffers parents from the negative impact of temperamental reactivity because
parents who enter parenthood feeling confident may be less likely to blame themselves for
"failures" interacting with their reactive infants, facilitating their ability to persist longer and
eventually succeed in their interactive goals.
Another potentially important aspect of the parenting context that has not been examined in
relation to efficacy is the extent of parents' involvement in parenting tasks (e.g., feeding, bathing,
comforting the infant). Presumably parents who engage in these tasks more frequently become
more competent, which should enhance parenting efficacy through performance attainment
(Bandura, 1977). This possibility is examined in this study.
THE PRESENT STUDY
In this study, we examine the development of parenting efficacy beliefs in mothers and fathers
across the transition to parenthood, an important goal given consistent evidence that parenting
efficacy is associated with adaptive parenting and child outcomes. Two features of this study are
particularly significant. First, the inclusion of fathers is important because to our knowledge, no
other studies exist that examine the predictors of fathers' efficacy during infancy, and inclusion
of both parents allows for a substantive comparison of the processes that appear to affect efficacy
development for each. Second, including measures of efficacy at both the prenatal and
postpartum periods allows us to determine if they are consistent over time and if high prenatal
efficacy buffers parents from the negative impact of a temperamentally reactive infant on
postnatal efficacy. If so, knowledge about the antecedents of prenatal efficacy may be of clinical
significance for those that provide early intervention services beginning in the prenatal period.
We hypothesize that remembered parental warmth from the same-sex parent, high self-esteem
and low levels of depressive symptoms, and amount of prior experience with children will be

Frequently asked questions

Q1. What are the contributions in this paper?

The differential predictors of mother and father efficacy as well as their implications for future research are discussed. 

Q2. What are the future works in this paper?

Important avenues for future consideration include identifying other predictors of maternal efficacy during the prenatal period, given it is such a robust independent predictor of postnatal efficacy, which has been linked with parenting competence in other studies ( Donovan et al., 1990 ; Hess, Teti, & Hussey-Gardner, 2004 ; Teti & Gelfand, 1991 ). Particular attention should be paid to the possibility that the nature of the association between the constructs examined in this study and parenting efficacy varies by race. Other potential correlates to consider include whether or not the pregnancy was planned, mothers ' concerns about work and family balance given evidence that work hours correlate negatively with perceived parenting competence ( Bornstein et al., 2003 ), and their exposure to salient positive parental role models other than their own mothers. In addition, a more detailed measure of previous experience with children that taps into the specific timing, content, and length of previous experience ( e. g., babysitting sporadically as a teenager may affect efficacy expectations differently than being a full-time nanny for a summer ) may be useful. 

Q3. What are the main factors that have been examined as predictors of parenting efficacy?

Aspects of the parenting context, particularly infant temperament and social support, have also been examined as predictors of parenting efficacy by virtue of task difficulty and verbal persuasion. 

Q4. What is the strongest predictor of parenting efficacy according to Bandura?

Given performance attainment is the strongest predictor of efficacy according to Bandura (1977), it seems likely that experience caring for other children should enhance parenting efficacy. 

Q5. What is the main effect of fathers' efficacy?

Perhaps fathers' efficacy is more responsive to verbal persuasion than mothers' efficacy because fathers have less prior information available about their likely performance attainment in parenting tasks given less previous experience with children. 

Q6. What are the robust predictors of maternal postnatal efficacy?

The most robust predictors of maternal postnatal efficacy included both prenatal efficacy, which significantly predicted postnatal efficacy independent of all other predictors including the current parenting context, and perceived infant temperamental reactivity as both a main effect and as buffered by social support. 

Q7. What were the only factors that predicted maternal efficacy?

Of the parenting context variables in Block 3, infant distress to limits, soothability, and the interaction between social support and distress to limits were the only factors that predicted maternal efficacy independent of other predictors in the model and each effect was in the predicted direction. 

Q8. What was the significance of the indirect effect of remembered maternal warmth on prenatal efficacy?

Sobel's test (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Kline, 1998) was used to test the significance of the indirect effect of remembered maternal warmth on prenatal efficacy through self-esteem and the results were significant, β = .11, z = 2. 95, p < .01. 

Q9. What was the association between distress to limits and postnatal efficacy?

Consistent with the hypothesis, when prenatal efficacy was low, the association between distress to limits and postnatal efficacy was negative, β = -.11, ns, but when prenatal efficacy was high, the association between distress to limits and postnatal efficacy was positive, β = .21, ns. 

Q10. How was the measure developed by Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) used?

The measure developed by Leerkes and Crockenberg (2002) was used to obtain an index of parents' satisfaction with social support regarding parenting from partners and from others at 6 months postpartum. 

Q11. What is the relationship between maternal involvement in child care tasks and perceived infant distress?

That maternal involvement in child-care tasks was unrelated to individual differences in maternal efficacy may be a function of threshold effects. 

Q12. What were the main predictors of maternal efficacy after entry of the prenatal variables?

education and prenatal efficacy remained significant predictors and self-esteem remained a trend even after entry of the parenting context variables. 

Q13. What was the effect of self esteem on postnatal efficacy?

Based on Sobel's test, the indirect effect of self esteem on postnatal efficacy through prenatal efficacy was a trend, β = .08, z = 1.89, p < .10. 

Q14. What is the important aspect of the parenting context that has not been examined?

Another potentially important aspect of the parenting context that has not been examined in relation to efficacy is the extent of parents' involvement in parenting tasks (e.g., feeding, bathing, comforting the infant). 

Q15. What was the effect of remembered paternal warmth on prenatal efficacy?

The only significant predictor of father prenatal efficacy was remembered paternal warmth, and inconsistent with the results for mothers, this effect was direct rather than mediated, suggesting the vicarious experience or modeling was the mechanism by which remembered paternal warmth enhanced prenatal efficacy. 

Q16. What is the main effect of instrumental parenting support on fathers' efficacy?

instrumental parenting support may have a greater impact on fathers because they engage in relatively less hands-on infant care than mothers, who may require more extensive support to see a benefit on efficacy beliefs. 

Q17. How many responses were averaged to yield an overall measure of perceived social support?

Responses about partners and others were averaged to yield an overall measure of perceived social support (α = .81 for both mothers and fathers). 

Q18. What is the link between performance attainment and efficacy?

This link between performance attainment and efficacy is influenced by task difficulty in that extreme task difficulty may undermine performance attainment and efficacy. 

Q19. What was the effect of remembered paternal warmth on maternal efficacy?

Each of these effects remained after entry of prenatal efficacy, which was itself a trend, although the effect of remembered paternal warmth dropped to a trend suggesting partial mediation by prenatal efficacy.