What is the dynamic behavior of magma reservoirbeneath the oceanic crust over time?5 answersThe dynamic behavior of magma reservoirs beneath the oceanic crust over time is complex and influenced by various factors. Magma reservoirs can consist of different components, including intergranular melt, partially molten rock (mush), and melt lenses or magma chambers. These reservoirs can be connected or separated by sub-solidus rock. The presence of crystals in the reservoirs affects their mechanical behavior and can lead to poroelastic responses. Melt diffusion within the crystal mush can cause protracted displacements and continue to develop even after the withdrawal or emplacement of melt has ended. The spatial and temporal mechanics of magma reservoir behavior are influenced by the presence of crystals and their hydraulic properties. Understanding these processes is crucial for enhancing geophysical models and hazard forecasting in subvolcanic systems.
What are the different methods of observing magma convection in volcanoes?5 answersDifferent methods of observing magma convection in volcanoes include the monitoring of volcanic gas compositions, the use of spectroscopic remote sensing methods, and the development of small drone systems for chemical characterization of volcanic plumes. Monitoring volcanic gas compositions can provide insights into the convection process, as each gas has a unique solubility-pressure profile. Spectroscopic remote sensing methods, although limited in the number of species they can measure, can still provide valuable information about volcanic emissions. Small drone systems have been developed for chemical characterization of volcanic plumes, allowing for measurements to be taken directly at the scene and providing a more accessible and cost-effective method of observation. These methods collectively contribute to our understanding of magma convection in volcanoes and help to obtain information about volcanic systems and magmatic processes.
How is magma formed? ( Magma formed)?5 answersMagma is formed through the process of partial melting of peridotite mantle, which is the dominant mass transport agent in the Earth and terrestrial planets. The melting temperature of peridotite mantle ranges from about 1350°C to near 2000°C, depending on the pressure and depth. The initial magma formed at the solidus of peridotite is basaltic, but it gradually becomes increasingly mafic with increasing depth. The presence of volatile substances like CO2 can significantly impact the melting temperature of peridotite, leading to the formation of carbonatitic magma under certain pressure conditions. The formation of magmas is also influenced by the decompression melting of mantle eclogites during surfacing and the filling of impact craters with melts of the synaccretionary magmatic ocean.
How can we explorer mineral deposits in Japan?5 answersMineral deposits in Japan can be explored through systematic geological mapping, followed by geochemical and geophysical surveys of the area. The geochemical surveys involve studying the variations of rocks and their chemical compositions, which can be depicted on a geochemical map. Geophysical surveys aim to detect physical phenomena associated with mineralization, such as basement highs and hydrothermal alteration. In Japan, there are national exploration and exploitation projects for seabed mineral resources, including seafloor massive sulfide deposits and cobalt-rich crusts. The Metal Mining Agency of Japan has compiled existing data on Kuroko deposits and related mineral occurrences to create a Kuroko database, which can be used to identify potential areas for Kuroko type deposits. In the Hokuroku district of Japan, the distribution of kuroko-type massive sulfide deposits can be characterized using geologic and geochemical data, and a three-dimensional content model can be created using a spatial method called SLANS.
What are the main factors that control the composition of volcanic glass?3 answersThe composition of volcanic glass is primarily controlled by the chemistry of the magma and the type of eruption. Different geological processes can lead to the formation of volcanic glass, such as extrusion of magma onto the Earth's surface or high-velocity impacts of extraterrestrial bodies. The chemical alteration of volcanic glass can occur through standard extraction procedures, particularly for basaltic and andesitic glasses. Biological activity and water chemistry can also influence the composition of neoformed clay from volcanic glass, with glass chemistry playing a major role. The glass transition, which determines the solid-like or liquid-like behavior of melt, is another factor that affects the composition of volcanic glass. It can be crossed during processes such as magma fragmentation, spatter formation, and emplacement of pyroclastic deposits. Atmospheric processing of volcanic ash can also influence the solubility of iron in the glass, with pH fluctuations and leaching/dissolution processes playing a role.
What is the cause of isotopic disequilibrium in magma reservoirs?5 answersIsotopic disequilibrium in magma reservoirs can be caused by various factors, including the different oxidation states of iron during magmatic melting and recrystallization. Additionally, the extreme disequilibria between U and Th series nuclides observed in volcanic rocks can provide insights into the age and formation of magma. For example, the eruption of carbonatite magma from Oldoinyo Lengai volcano in Tanzania exhibited significant disequilibria in nuclide ratios, suggesting a short formation time of 7 to 18 years and a possible association with prior volcanic eruptions. The formation of carbonatite magma may be attributed to the continuous exsolution of carbonatite from nephelinite, which was itself Ra-enriched. However, the exact cause of isotopic disequilibrium in magma reservoirs and the specific genetic options for magma formation require further investigation.