Showing papers on "Learning sciences published in 1974"

Principles of Instructional Design

Abstract: PART I: INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS. 1. Introduction to Instructional Design. 2. Designing Instructional Systems. 3. The Outcomes of Instruction. 4. Varieties of Learning: Intellectual Skills and Strategies. 5. Varieties of Learning: Information, Motor Skills, and Attitudes. 6. The Learner. PART II: BASIC PROCESSES IN LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION. 7. Defining Performance Objectives. 8. Analysis of a Learning Task. 9. Designing Instructional Sequences. 10. The Events of Instruction. 11. Technology Affordances. 12. Designing the Individual Lesson. 13. Assessing Student Performance. 14. Group Learning Environments. 15. Online Learning. 16. Evaluating Instruction.

Methods for examining representations of A subject-matter structure in a student's memory

Abstract: Curricular reform in science and mathematics education has moved from rote learning of facts and computation skiUs toward the learning of a structure of a subject The following reasons are among those commonly cited for this shift: (a) knowledge of structure is required for a full understanding of the subject matter (b) structural knowledge enhances retention of the subject matter, (c) structural knowledge facilitates problem solving (d) structural knowledge leads directly t o transfer to similar and (perhaps) new situations, (e) structural knowledge results in intellectual excitement, and (f) structural knowledge leads to an aptitude for learning Although these reasons for teaching structure are admirable and certainly to be valued, there is little empirical evidence t o support them (recent research bears on some of them)6 I 3 A critical problem for instructional research, then, is to examine behavioral outcomes of learning structure in order to provide information for answering such questions as: (a) to what extent does the structure in a student’s memory correspond t o the subject-matter structure? (b) to what extent d o students with an accurate structural representation of subject matter have an advantage over students with a lesser structural representation in retaining information on the subject? in solving familiar problems? in solving unfamiliar (transfer) problems? And, eventually, the psychologist will provide information bearing on the more ultimate questions: t o what extent does structural learning lead to (a) a better understanding of the subject? (b) an aptitude for learning?, and (c) intellectual excitement? Psychologists have only just begun t o study the educational implications of learning the structure of a subject matter This paper might be viewed as a progress report on some methodological advances made on certain facets of the problem

A Generative Model of Mathematics Learning

Abstract: meaning for mathematics education, this paper will begin with a hypothesis about human learning that has been developed from the investigator's research in cognition, discovery learning, and instruction in schools. It will then present a sample of the empirical studies that led to the generation of the hypothesis. Finally, some of the meaning of this research for mathematics learning will be discussed. The first point to emerge will be that we can be proud of the research in the learning of mathematics, including the development of curricular materials. The second point will be a recommendation that research in mathematics learning should increasingly be devoted to studying the stepby-step specific and higher-order intellectual processes that students engage in when they learn mathematics; such as when they are adding, subtracting, differentiating, and integrating. The hypothesis and empirical studies presented in this paper focus on the cognitive, generative processes that are involved in the learning of mathematics. These processes could perhaps be presented in simpler S-R terminology. The cognitive model emphasizes the learner's active, stepby-step processing of information, and is more compatible with the author's point of view. The data to be discussed will probably arouse recollections of the This is a slightly edited version of a paper commissioned by the ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education and presented at a session of the Special Interest Group for Research in Mathematics Education. The session, held 28 February 1973, was in conjunction with the AERA Annual Meeting. The paper was prepared pursuant to a contract with the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters. Points of view or opinions do not, therefore, necessarily represent official Office of Education position or policy.

Educational Technology and the Learning Process

Abstract: T he phrase "educational technology" carries differe t meanings to different people. Both of its major meanings were recognized by the Commission on Instructional Technology in its report entitled "To Improve Learning" (1970). I have always favored the second meaning identified in that report, namely, a body of technical knowledge about the systematic design and conduct of education, based upon scientific research (Gagne', 1968). Obviously, though, any such systematic approach to education, and more specifically to instruction, must include a consideration of the functions to be performed by media-that is, by what are called "the things of learning" (Armsey and Dahl, 1973).

Experiential Learning: Conceptualization and Definition

Abstract: "Experiential learning is a highly qualitative concept, and cannot be received as a rigidly defined theory of learning. Carl Rogers makes a step towards a conceptualization of experiential learning by trying to define its essence: It has a quality of personal involvement — the whole-person in both his feeling and cognitive aspects being in the learning event. An important point in Rogers’ statement, as underlined, is his use of the term “whole-person”. Note that Rogers explains that the individual is involved in both feeling and cognitive aspects of the learning event. A third learning dimension of behavior can be added to the affective and cognitive dimensions."

Prior Knowledge and the Learning of Science. A Review of Ausubel's Theory of This Process.

Abstract: (1974). Prior knowledge and the learning of science. Studies in Science Education: Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 61-81.

An Open-System Model of Learning.

Abstract: It is not new to apply systems theory to education. Educational technologists, Finn (1956), Hoban (1956) and Heinich (1970) among others, have convinced us that we need to take a "systems approach" to education, and have shown us how. The reasons they put forward for adopting the systems approach lie at the very heart of educational technology. Advances in the quantity and quality of hardware and software have provided education with a variety and flexibility of resources hitherto unknown. Instructional designers can now create rich multimediated learning systems, where learners have access to information in many different forms. At the

Concepts in learning

Abstract: Introduction There are many image segmentation algorithms, but integrating them into larger systems is difficult. The segmentation of an image into regions implies the optimization of a region criterion appropriate to the system’s task and environment. A higher-level system does not require generic image segmentation, but needs object segmentation, the division of an image into regions that correspond to the objects the system manipulates or monitors.

Effects of the Availability of Objectives and/or Rules on the Learning Process.

Abstract: Paul F. Merrill The Florida State University U.S. °VAST MEilT OF HE %OW, EDUCATION I WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION IOC." DOCUMENT RAS MEN REPRODUCED IERRCI Y AS RECEIVED FROM THE PETSON OR °ROANE:RION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATES DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OP EDLI CATION POSITION OR POLICY The effects of behavioral objectives and/or rules on the learning process were investigated using a hierarchical imaginary science called the Science of Xenogra& Systems. The learning task was presented by an IBM 1500/1800 computer-assisted instruction system to 130 introductory educational psychology and science education students. After all Ss were given a battery of six cognitive ability tests, they were randomly assigned to either an example only, an objective-example, a rule-example or cn objective-rule-example treatment, The Ss were required to meet a minimum criterion performance at each level of the task before proceeding to the next level. The presentation of rules significantly reduced the number of examples and total time required to complete the task and increased performance on a transfer test. The presentation of objectives did not significantly affect total or display latency, but significantly reduced test-item-response latency and the required number of examples. The presentation of objectives and;or rules also significantly reduced the requirement for reasoning ability. On the basis of the results of this study it was concluded that objectives have orienting and organizing effects which dispose students to attend to, process, and structure relevant information in accordance with the

Learning Strategies: A Review and Synthesis of the Current Literature.

Abstract: : The report reviews and synthesizes psychological and educational research on learning strategies. It contains an overview of strategy modification; a review of factors influencing strategy selection and use (including intellectual aptitude, personality variables, cognitive style, reception preference, motivation, sex, and prior knowledge); a review of learning strategies (General, comprehension, memory, problem solving, and creativity); and recommendations involving future research. The report develops and uses a conceptual framework providing coherence to the variety of studies which relate to research on learning strategies. The intent of this study is to provide a basis for developing specific research plans to improve students' learning strategies and skills.

Applying Principles of Instructional Design to a Medical School Course in Psychiatry

Abstract: Modern principles of instructional design were applied by the authors to an undergraduate medical school course in psychiatry with extremely promising results. The authors presented a description of the program design and instructional techniques to second-year medical students, emphasizing in a specific way the development and implementation of learning objectives. It was found that these instructional methods led both to increased perceived learning and greater actual learning.

Validation of Learning Hierarchies for Objective-Based Instructional Systems.

Abstract: The need for an empirically defensible means of sequencing instruction appears to have been the primary motivator for research into learning hierarchies. Also, valid learning hierarchies could act as congealing forces in individualizing instructional systems by providing psychological roadmaps for diagnosing students' preinstructional skills and monitoring students' progress through instructional systems. Four methods for generating candidates for learning hierarchies are available: introspection, formal analysis, observation, and statistical nfishing." Experimental transfer of training studies and statistical studies have been used to evaluate posited hierarchies. white recently made significant modifications of these standard evaluation methods to improve the internal validity of research into learning hierarchies. Several external validity issues remain to be resolved before scarce resources should continue to be allocated for additional learning hierarchy research. (Author) S DEPARTMENT GP HEALTM EDUCATION &WELFARE NA TiONAL INSTITUTE Of E CNC ATtON ki-PRO .; f fl f 11.1 . S' t ROM sTf ief -,1% I A" ON 0R,G.N S' ..f A 04 OPINONS ;.,f r. r PEpin .f 'il,f F A. ,-, r-e, IV SA . e T GO C BEST COPT AVAILABLE VALIDATION OF LEARNING HIERARCHIES FOR OBJECTIVE-RASED INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS