Showing papers on "Sanitation published in 1994"

Drinking-water quality, sanitation, and breast-feeding: their interactive effects on infant health.

Abstract: The promotion of proper infant feeding practices and the improvement of environmental sanitation have been two important strategies in the effort to reduce diarrhoeal morbidity among infants. Breast-feeding protects infants by decreasing their exposure to water- and foodborne pathogens and by improving their resistance to infection; good sanitation isolates faecal material from the human environment, reducing exposures to enteric pathogens. Taken together, breast-feeding and good sanitation form a set of sequential barriers that protect infants from diarrhoeal pathogens. As a result, breast-feeding may be most important if the sanitation barrier is not in place. This issue is explored using data from a prospective study of 2355 urban Filipino infants during the first 6 months of life. Longitudinal multivariate analyses are used to estimate the effects of full breast-feeding and mixed feeding on diarrhoeal disease at different levels of sanitation. Breast-feeding provides significant protection against diarrhoeal disease for infants in all environments. Administration of even small portions of contaminated water supplements to fully breast-fed infants nearly doubles their risk of diarrhoea. Mixed-fed and weaned infants consume much greater quantities of supplemental liquids, and as a result, the protective effect of full breast-feeding is greatest when drinking-water is contaminated. Similarly, full breast-feeding has stronger protective effects among infants living in crowded, highly contaminated settings.

Environmental management: a re-emerging vector control strategy.

Abstract: Vector control may be accomplished by environmental management (EM), which consists of permanent or long-term modification of the environment, temporary or seasonal manipulation of the environment, and modifying or changing our life styles and practices to reduce human contact with infective vectors. The primary focus of this paper is EM in the control of human malaria, filariasis, arboviruses, Chagas' disease, and schistosomiasis. Modern EM developed as a discipline based primarily in ecologic principles and lessons learned from the adverse environmental impacts of rural development projects. Strategies such as the suppression of vector populations through the provision of safe water supplies, proper sanitation, solid waste management facilities, sewerage and excreta disposal systems, water manipulation in dams and irrigation systems, vector diversion by zooprophylaxis, and vector exclusion by improved housing, are discussed with appropriate examples. Vectors of malaria, filariasis, Chagas' disease, and schistosomiasis have been controlled by drainage or filling aquatic breeding sites, improved housing and sanitation, the use of expanded polystyrene beads, zooprophylaxis, or the provision of household water supplies. Community participation has been effective in the suppression of dengue vectors in Mexico and the Dominican Republic. Alone or combined with other vector control methods, EM has been proven to be a successful approach to vector control in a number of places. The future of EM in vector control looks promising.

Measuring the Demand for Improved Urban Sanitation Services: Results of a Contingent Valuation Study in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Abstract: In developing countries, there are few institutional mechanisms for the incorporation of demand information in the planning of public services. As a result, misjudgements about consumer preferences have often led to poor project design and performance. The contingent valuation method which relies on direct elicitation of consumer preferences and willingness to pay has emerged as one approach to address this shortcoming. The paper describes an application of the method to facilitate demand-driven planning for provision of improved sanitation in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The results suggest that demand information about unfamiliar technologies can be successfully obtained and can serve as a useful input in the design of public services.

Cities, unions, and the privatization of sanitation services

Abstract: We analyzed 740 cities to determine whether they considered or adopted the contracting out of their sanitation collection service. The presence of a municipal sanitation union reduces the likelihood that a city considers the contracting-out option and the likelihood of adoption of the privatization alternative, but only in those cities which have cooperative relations with the union.

Trends, priorities and policy directions in the control of vector-borne diseases in urban environments

Abstract: The habitats available in urban environments tend to be rather lacking in diversity compared to those in the countryside, and relatively few species are able to exploit them. Those that can, however, often find themselves relatively well provided with food and places to live, and relatively free of competitors and predators. This applies not only to such well-known species as the house-sparrow, but also to most of the important mosquito vectors of human disease in urban areas. Human city dwellers thus tend to be exposed to a different spectrum of disease than their rural counterparts. This review describes how the physical and social changes associated with urbanization have altered the transmission of vector-borne disease. It concentrates on the important mosquito-borne infections: malaria, dengue and filariasis. Dengue virus vectors breed in relatively clean water in man-made containers, while urban filariasis vectors breed in highly polluted water, and these mosquitoes have now been spread by man's activities to almost every tropical city. With important exceptions, anopheline malaria vectors have not generally succeeded in adapting to urban life, but malaria can still be a problem where there are rural pockets in the middle of town. Each of these problems requires control using different technologies and timing. The following policy implications are stressed. The areas of responsibility between different sectors of the local services (health, water supply, sanitation), and between these and the public, need to be clearly defined. Due to the biological complexities of vector-borne disease, decentralized primary health care systems are generally incapable of ensuring that control efforts are adequately targeted in time and space. Community support is essential but specialized technical skills are also required.

The importance of bacterial adhesion in the dairy industry.

Abstract: Befouling of dairy equipment causes serious sanitation and economic problems as well as decreasing effectiveness of biocidal treatments

Watson, Swellengrebel and species sanitation: environmental and ecological aspects.

Abstract: Following the discovery of mosquito transmission of malaria, the theory and practice of malaria control by general and selective removal of specific vector populations resulted particularly from Malcolm Watson's empirical work in peninsular Malaysia, first in the urban and peri-urban areas of Klang and Port Swettenham and subsequently in the rural rubber plantations, and from the work of N.H. Swellengrebel in nearby Indonesia on the taxonomy, ecology and control of anophelines. They developed the concept of species sanitation: the selective modification of the environment to render a particular anopheline of no importance as a vector in a particular situation. The lack of progress along these lines in India at that time is contrasted with that in south-east Asia. The extension of species sanitation and related concepts to other geographical areas and to other vector-borne disease situations is outlined.

Environmental health knowledge and practice survey among secondary schoolchildren in Zaria, Nigeria.

Abstract: Knowledge of environmental health was assessed in a sample of 192 students at Ja'afaru Secondary School, Zaria, Nigeria, by means of a questionnaire. A follow-up practice survey was also administered to assess the environmental sanitation of the school and the homes of a subsample of the students. Observations were recorded on the sources of water, the methods of refuse and sewage disposal, and the hygienic condition of the toilets in both the school and the homes surveyed. The findings indicated that the students' knowledge of environmental hygiene was high for all classes and that students whose fathers had primary, secondary, or post-secondary education scored slightly higher than those whose fathers were illiterate. Analysis of the observations on environmental sanitation showed that even though the school lacked indoor plumbing on the premises, the pupils were accustomed to pipe-borne and well water in their homes. The main method of refuse disposal for school and homes was open dumping, and the main method of sewage disposal for both school and homes was pit latrines, which were dirty and poorly maintained. Although the pupils had good knowledge of environmental hygiene, inadequate opportunities and lack of sanitation facilities at school and homes did not allow them to practice the health knowledge they had acquired. Recommendations were made to the school authority to direct more effort toward providing a safe and adequate water supply, good drainage systems, additional toilets, and renovating the existing toilets. The school should also emphasize the practice of good environmental hygiene to complement theoretical input.

Sanitation in a poor settlement in Bangladesh: a challenge for the 1990s

Abstract: The primary purpose of a water supply an sanitation project is to achieve an effective and sustainable imrovement of the community environment. This paper presents the experiences gained in the evaluation of a water supply and sanitation project in a settlement in Dhaka where improved water supply, sanitary latrines and hygiene education were provided by a reputed international non-governmental organization. Water and latrine use practices by adults improved but latrines were maintained so poorly that concentrated pollution created a problem within the community. The people from the community were not provided with appropriate knowledge or a system of maintenance. Even though water supply and sanitation were given priority status, since they were not planned with a view to being sustainable, they failed to interrupt the environmental contamination process.

Health Care for Refugees and Displaced people

Abstract: * Acknowledgements * Introduction * 1.Assessment and Planning * 1.1 Introduction * 1.2 Checklist of information required for assessment * 1.2.1Demography * 1.2.2 Cmp enviroment * 1.2.3 Logistics * 1.2.4 Shelter * 1.2.5 Enviromental health * Water * Sanitation and vector control * Hygiene promotion * 1.2.6 Food and nutrition * Nutritional status * Food availability * General ration * Selective feeding * 1.2.7 Health status and medical care * Mortality * Morbidity * Medical care * 1.2.8 Psycho-social isses * 1.3 Planning * 1.3.1 Assessment as the basis for planning * 1.3.2 Operational principles * Standardisation * Integration * Participation and co-ordination * Appropriate level of services * Equity and ease of access * Preventive and curative care * 1.2.3 General issues * 2.Implementation and monitoring * 2.1 Health Information System * 2.2 Food and nutrition * 2.2.1 Nutritional status * 2.2.2 General feeding * Purpose * Admission criteria * DIscharge criteria * Content * Method of distribution * 2.2.4 Therapeutic feeding * Purpose * Admission criteria * DIscharge criteria * Content * Method of distribution * 2.2.5 Monitoring * Nutritional surveillance * General ration programme * Supplementary and therapeutic feeding * 2.3 Preventive health care * 2.3.1 Preventive health care * 2.3.1 Enviromental Health * Water supply * Sanitation and waste disposal * Vector control * Shelter * 2.3.2 Immunisation * 2.3.3 Health promotion * 2.4 Control of communicable diseases * 2.4.1 Summary of main methods for controling diseases * 2.4.2 Investigating disease outbreakes (epidemics) * 2.4.3Control of common diseases * Measles * Diarrhoeal diseases * Bacillary dysentery * Malaria * Acute respiratory infections * Hepititis * Meningococcal meningitis * Turberculosis * HIV/AIDS 2.5 Clinical care * 2.5.1 Physical facilities, structures, staffing * Organisation of health centre * Staffing * Monitoring * 2.5.2 Health care for women and children * 2.5.3 Laboratory facilities * 2.5.4 Essential drugs and equipment * Drug procurement * 2.6 Psycosocial issues * 2.6.1 Identification of vulnerable groups * 2.6.2 Rehabilitation: strengthening community coping mechanisms * 2.6.3 Training in awareness of psychosocial issues * 2.6.4 Post-traumatic stress disorder * 2.6.5 Monitoring * 2.7 Training * 2.7.1 Training needs * 2.7.2 Training issues * 2.7.3 Training method * 3. Issues arising from long-term displacement * 3.1 Introduction * 3.2 Health Information System * 3.3 Nutrition * 3.3.1 Food rations * 3.3.2 Supplementary feeding programmes * 3.4 Environmental health * 3.5 Immunisation * 3.6 Health promotion * 3.7 Disease control * 3.8 Disability * 3.9 Clinical care * 3.10 Psycho-social issues * 3.11 Training * 4.Evaluation * 4.1 Purpose of evaluation * 4.2 Timing and scope of evaluation * 4.3 Information required for evaluation * 4.4 Types of indicator * 4.5 Data collection for evaluation * 4.6 Participatory evaluation * 4.7 Reporting and using the findings * Appendices * 1. Mortality rates * 2. Nutrition surveys * 3. Nutritional values of food aid commodities * 4. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies * 5. Supplementary feeding recipes 6. Water quality and chlorination * 7. Lists of essential drugs * 8.Treatment protocols for diarrhoea fever (and chloroquine-resistant malaria) acute respiratory infections * 9. Vaccine storage immunisation schedules drug storage * 10. Sample monitoring and surveillance form * References and further reading * Glossary * Index.

Nutrition in Zimbabwe: An Update

Abstract: A comparative analysis of nutritional levels in Zimbabwe, prior to independence in 1980 and present, shows a considerable improvement in the overall reduction of malnutrition, noted especially in the areas of infant and child malnutrition. This study cites a governmental commitment to public, primary and rural health care improvements, water and sanitation services and family planning programs targeted towards vulnerable groups. Two major threats to improvements are: drought which results in food shortages; and a sharp rise in infant and child HIV/AIDS cases. The study further cites a definite need to continue defining and implementing a national nutrition policy which would be flexible enough to address both present needs and impending issues.

Sanitation trolley for use in hospital, nursing home etc.,

Abstract: The sanitation unit is contained within a wheeled trolley, from which wash basin, lavatory pan and shower facilities may be pulled out for use of patients. The trolley (1) is carried on wheels (2), with electrical and water supplies provided, as well as drainage (5,6). An electrical heater (18), and a motor-driven pump (11) are also provided. A lavatory bowl (4) may be pulled out from the unit on further wheels (2), and also doubles as a shower seat (9c). The shower (9) and enclosure (9b) are normally stored within the unit, until required for use. A wash basin is alternatively available.

Behavior in Water Supply and Sanitation

Abstract: Health planners often conceptualize improved public health infrastructures, such as the provision of sanitary facilities, as keys to improved public health results. These improvements alone, however, rarely result in the anticipated health improvements. Changes in hygiene behavior, that is, in the way in which people utilize their existing resources along with improved infrastructure. are critical to achieving sustained improvements in public health conditions. This behavioral/human component tends to either be considered last in the planning process or, at best, is thought to happen once infrastructure improvements are in place. This article argues that such components need to be planned for and utilized in the overall planning of infrastructure improvements intended to change public health conditions of the peri-urban and rural poor.

Staying Healthy in Child Care: Preventing Infectious Diseases in Child Care.

Abstract: The National Health and Medical Research Council gives no assurance as to the accuracy or relevance of any of the information contained in this rescinded publication. The National Health and Medical Research Council assumes no legal liability or responsibility for errors or omissions contained within this rescinded publication for any loss or damage incurred as a result of reliance on this publication.

Assessment of the impact of a hygiene intervention on environmental sanitation childhood diarrhoea and the growth of children in rural Bangladesh.

Abstract: Poor hygiene and sanitation are major contributors to diarrhea leading to malnutrition and child mortality. In Bangladesh 90% of preschool children suffer from some degree of malnutrition. Selecting a project area in lowland Bangladesh because of its poor hygiene and sanitation conditions and its high rates of diarrhea and malnutrition the authors developed and implemented a community-based hygiene intervention in five villages with the objective of reducing the level of childhood diarrhea by altering ground sanitation and personal and food hygiene practices such as the washing of hands with ash before handling food and after defecation-related activities cutting fingernails removing feces from childrens bodies and yards using tube-well water to prepare baby food and reducing supplementary feeding contamination by the proper cleaning of bottles or avoiding bottle-feeding. Households were targeted with children aged 0-18 months while a comparison site was observed without intervention. Baseline surveys were undertaken on the subset of households with children 9-18 months at the control site in July 1985 and at the intervention site in September with intervention activities conducted over the period January-July 1986. The final survey was then conducted at both sites in August 1986. Although both sites were cleaner with lower levels of diarrheal morbidity and better growth status at the end of the study period the improvement was greater at the intervention site. The effect at the control site may be attributed to the intensive observation exposures mothers education and household socioeconomic conditions while the intervention site effects were most likely due to the intervention activities.

Sanitation privatization and sanitation employees’ wages

Abstract: Despite the considerable attention recently given to privatization, important questions remain about its impact on public sector unions and collective bargaining. This study examines how the threat of sanitation contracting affects the wages of union and nonunion public sanitation employees. Results indicate that increases in the threat of sanitation contracting reduce sanitation employees’ union-nonunion wage differential.

Women's involvement in a rural Bangladesh water and sanitation project.

Abstract: Rural women were involved in a water and sanitation project (WSS) in which health impacts were compared between children in two areas: intervention and comparison areas. In intervention area people were provided with handpumps, latrines and hygiene education, whereas, in the comparison area, people did not receive these project inputs. In the intervention area women were directly involved in the site selection of handpumps and latrines, their installation, construction, and maintenance. Observations on women's involvement and their performances in the intervention area are presented. About 89% of the pumps maintained by women (n = 30), and 86% of those maintained by project workers (n = 49) were found to be in good working condition. Women supervised the construction of all 754 latrines, fenced 58% of the projects-supported latrines (n = 268) and emptied the pits of 65% of the 276 filled-up latrines. Socio-cultural factors were not barriers to women's involvement and performance. The findings have policy implications for effective involvement of rural women towards the development of sustainable WSS programs.

Vement in a rural bangladesh water and sanitation project

Abstract: Rural women were involved in a water and sanitation project (WSS) in which health impacts were compared between children in two areas: intervention and comparison areas. In intervention area people were provided with handpumps, latrines and hygiene education, whereas, in the comparison area, people did not receive these project inputs. In the intervention area women were directly involved in the site selection of handpumps and latrines, their installation, construction, and maintenance. Observations on women's involvement and their performances in the intervention area are presented. About 89% of the pumps maintained by women (n = 30), and 86% of those maintained by project workers (n = 49) were found to be in good working condition. Women supervised the construction of all 754 latrines, fenced 58% of the projects-supported latrines (n = 268) and emptied the pits of 65% of the 276 filled-up latrines. Socio-cultural factors were not barriers to women's involvement and performance. The findings have policy implications for effective involvement of rural women towards the development of sustainable WSS programs.

Sanitation and parasitism at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia

Abstract: One focus of historical archaeology at Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, West Virginia, is tracing the development of sanitation at the town through the 1800s and 1900s. Historical documentation indicates that there was a degree of resistance to the modernization of village sanitation. This study attempts to verify this resistance through examination of privy soils for parasites indicative of fecal-borne disease, specifically the helminth species Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura. The presence of these parasites in the early 1900s would indicate that fecal-borne disease due to poor sanitation continued to be an aspect of town life. The analysis revealed the eggs of both species in all three privies, indicating that resistance to modern sanitation resulted in the maintenance of fecal-borne disease.

Low-cost urban sanitation in Lesotho

Abstract: Lesotho's low-cost Urban Sanitation Program started in 1980 as a pilot component of a much larger urban development project This document details the development of the program from that pilot stage to what is now a national program The keys to the success of the low-cost sanitation program in general, and particularly in the urban areas of Lesotho, have been: (i) an affordable and acceptable latrine design; (ii) minimal direct grants or subsidies to householders; (iii) all latrine construction done by the private sector; (iv) a comprehensive program of ventilated improved pit latrine promotion, health, and hygiene education; (v) integration of the project into existing government structures; and (vi) strong coordination in policy and planning between different departments promoting improved sanitation