For many years, laser-driven ion acceleration, mainly proton acceleration, has been proposed and a number of proof-of-principle experiments have been carried out with lasers whose pulse duration was in the nanosecond range. In the 1990s, ion acceleration in a relativistic plasma was demonstrated with ultra-short pulse lasers based on the chirped pulse amplification technique which can provide not only picosecond or femtosecond laser pulse duration, but simultaneously ultra-high peak power of terawatt to petawatt levels. Starting from the year 2000, several groups demonstrated low transverse emittance, tens of MeV proton beams with a conversion efficiency of up to several percent. The laser-accelerated particle beams have a duration of the order of a few picoseconds at the source, an ultra-high peak current and a broad energy spectrum, which make them suitable for many, including several unique, applications. This paper reviews, firstly, the historical background including the early laser-matter interaction studies on energetic ion acceleration relevant to inertial confinement fusion. Secondly, we describe several implemented and proposed mechanisms of proton and/or ion acceleration driven by ultra-short high-intensity lasers. We pay special attention to relatively simple models of several acceleration regimes. The models connect the laser, plasma and proton/ion beam parameters, predicting important features, such as energy spectral shape, optimum conditions and scalings under these conditions for maximum ion energy, conversion efficiency, etc. The models also suggest possible ways to manipulate the proton/ion beams by tailoring the target and irradiation conditions. Thirdly, we review experimental results on proton/ion acceleration, starting with the description of driving lasers. We list experimental results and show general trends of parameter dependences and compare them with the theoretical predictions and simulations. The fourth topic includes a review of scientific, industrial and medical applications of laser-driven proton or ion sources, some of which have already been established, while the others are yet to be demonstrated. In most applications, the laser-driven ion sources are complementary to the conventional accelerators, exhibiting significantly different properties. Finally, we summarize the paper.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/75/5/056401/pdf

Review of laser-driven ion sources and their applications.

This self-contained, comprehensive book describes the fundamental properties of soft x-rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation and discusses their applications in a wide variety of fields, including EUV lithography for semiconductor chip manufacture and soft x-ray biomicroscopy. The author begins by presenting the relevant basic principles such as radiation and scattering, wave propagation, diffraction, and coherence. He then goes on to examine a broad range of phenomena and applications. The topics covered include EUV lithography, biomicroscopy, spectromicroscopy, EUV astronomy, synchrotron radiation, and soft x-ray lasers. He also provides a great deal of useful reference material such as electron binding energies, characteristic emission lines and photo-absorption cross-sections. The book will be of great interest to graduate students and researchers in engineering, physics, chemistry, and the life sciences. It will also appeal to practicing engineers involved in semiconductor fabrication and materials science.

X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet Radiation: Principles and Applications

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Synchrotron Radiation Research

In this review we propose to address the question: for the life-science researcher, what does X-ray microscopy have to offer that is not otherwise easily available?We will see that the answer depends on a combination of resolution, penetrating power, analytical sensitivity, compatibility with wet specimens, and the ease of image interpretation.

Soft X-ray microscopes and their biological applications

Recent years have seen significant progress in the field of soft- and hard-X-ray microscopy, both technically, through developments in source, optics and imaging methodologies, and also scientifically, through a wide range of applications While an ever-growing community is pursuing the extensive applications of today's available X-ray tools, other groups are investigating improvements in techniques, including new optics, higher spatial resolutions, brighter compact sources and shorter-duration X-ray pulses This Review covers recent work in the development of direct image-forming X-ray microscopy techniques and the relevant applications, including three-dimensional biological tomography, dynamical processes in magnetic nanostructures, chemical speciation studies, industrial applications related to solar cells and batteries, and studies of archaeological materials and historical works of art

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Nanoscale X-ray imaging

Several conceivable methods for the formation of optical images by x-rays are considered, and a method employing concave mirrors is adopted as the most promising. A concave spherical mirror receiving radiation at grazing incidence (a necessary arrangement with x-rays) images a point into a line in accordance with a focal length f=Ri/2 where R is the radius of curvature and i the grazing angle. The image is subject to an aberration such that a ray reflected at the periphery of the mirror misses the focal point of central rays by a distance given approximately by S=1.5Mr2/R, where M is the magnification of the image and r is the radius of the mirror face. The theoretically possible resolving power is such as to resolve point objects separated by about 70A, a limit which is independent of the wave-length used. Point images of points and therefore extended images of extended objects may be produced by causing the radiation to reflect from two concave mirrors in series. Sample results are presented.

Formation of Optical Images by X-Rays

The factors which affect resolution in diffraction microscopy are studied. The inequality pλ>4nd/N is a necessary condition for making good holograms, where p is the distance between source and film, d is the diameter of the source, and λ is its wavelength, n is the number of recorded central bands of the diffraction pattern, and N is the resolving power of the film. The minimum theoretical resolvable distance between two point objects is limited by d and N but not by the wavelengths used in the analysis and reconstruction. Possible applications to the focusing of x-rays by Gabor techniques and by a single Fresnel zone plate are considered.

A Study in Diffraction Microscopy with Special Reference to X-Rays

ROGERS'S1 elementary explanation of Gabor's2 technique for microscopy treats the hologram as a generalized Fresnel zone plate. I have used this idea for deriving a resolution criterion. Two point objects separated by a distance y produce two Fresnel zone patterns at the hologram with centres separated by a distance z, where z = pay/(Pa − qa), if Pa and qa are the distances from the illuminating point source of wave-length λa to the hologram film and from the film to the object, respectively. The subscript a refers to parameters of the ‘analysis’ while r will refer to the ‘reconstruction’.

Resolving Power in Diffraction Microscopy with Special Reference to X-Rays

An anecdotal description of the trials and tribulations encountered by the first investigators in the field of x-ray optics starting in the late 1940s and how they managed to overcome them is provided Some of the players, in addition to the author, included Paul Kirkpatrick, Hussein El Sum, and Howard Pattee of Stanford At the University of Redlands we became interested in producing an x-ray microscope based on the concepts of holography which Dennis Gabor had demonstrated This led to correspondence with Gabor and the opportunity to meet him and many other investigators at the first International Conference on X-Ray Microscopy and Microradiography held in Cambridge, England, in 1956 With the help of VE Cosslett and William Nixon, a point-focus x-ray tube was obtained by the University of Redlands for its experiments in x-ray holography in the 1950s

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Albert V. Baez

Papers

Formation of Optical Images by X-Rays

A Study in Diffraction Microscopy with Special Reference to X-Rays

Resolving Power in Diffraction Microscopy with Special Reference to X-Rays

Anecdotes about the Early Days of X-Ray Optics.

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