This pczper investigcztes irzterrelationslzi~~s of product design, orgcznization design, processes for leartlirzg and managing knowledge, arzd competitive strategy. This paper uses the principles of nearly decotnposable systems to investigate the ability of strind(irdized interfcices between components in cz product design to embed coordination of product development processes. Embedded coordination creates 'hierczrchical coordination' without the need to continually exercise authority-erzcrblirlg effective coordination of processes without the tight coupling of orgcznizationczl structures. We develop concepts of modularity in product and organization designs based orz smndcirdized component and organization interjczces. Modular product architec- tures create information structures that provide the 'glue' that holds together the loosely coupled parts of a modular orgatzizatiorz design. By fczcilitriting loose coupling, modularity can czlso reduce the cost and dyficulty of adaptive coordination, thereby incrensing the strategic flexibility of firms to respond to erzvironmentnl change. Modularity in product and organizcztion designs therefore etznbles cz new strcitegic approach to the management of knowledge based on cztz irztentionczl, carefully mcznaged loose coupling of (I firm's learning processes czt architec- tural cznd comporzent levels of product crecztiorz processes.

Modularity, flexibility, and knowledge management in product and organization design

This paper is a review of research in product development, which we define as the transformation of a market opportunity into a product available for sale. Our review is broad, encompassing work in the academic fields of marketing, operations management, and engineering design. The value of this breadth is in conveying the shape of the entire research landscape. We focus on product development projects within a single firm. We also devote our attention to the development of physical goods, although much of the work we describe applies to products of all kinds. We look inside the "black box" of product development at the fundamentaldecisions that are made by intention or default. In doing so, we adopt the perspective of product development as a deliberate business process involving hundreds of decisions, many of which can be usefully supported by knowledge and tools. We contrast this approach to prior reviews of the literature, which tend to examine the importance of environmental and contextual variables, such as market growth rate, the competitive environment, or the level of top-management support.

/pdf/product-development-decisions-a-review-of-the-literature-1jhatri7bn.pdf

Product Development Decisions: A Review of the Literature

Vaitoskirja pyrkii vastaamaan kahteen kysymykseen: Onko mahdollista muotoilla tuotannon teoriaa? Jos on, johtaako teoria tehokkuuden kohoamiseen, kun sita sovelletaan rakentamiseen?

Historiallinen analyysi paljastaa, etta 1900-luvulla on kehitetty ja sovellettu kolmea eri tuotannon kasitteellista mallia. Tuotanto on nahty muunnoksena, virtana ja arvontuottona. Kaikkia naita malleja voidaan perustellusti pitaa valttamattomina tuotannon ymmartamiseksi, ja niita tulisi siten soveltaa rinnakkain. Vaitostutkimuksessa esitettavaa tuotannon mallia kutsutaan tuotannon TFV-teoriaksi (Transformation, Flow, Value generation).

Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, etta tehokkuutta alentavia ongelmia esiintyy yleisesti rakentamisen kaikissa vaiheissa: rakennuttajan paatoksenteossa, suunnittelun ohjauksessa ja rakennustuotannon ohjauksessa. TFV-teoria selittaa suurelta osin rakentamisen ongelmien syntymisen. Tarkasteltaessa pioneeriyritysten kehittamishankkeita, joissa on sovellettu TFV-teorian tiettyja ydinpiirteita, voidaan havaita, etta talle teorialle perustuvat menetelmat tuottavat merkittavia kustannussaastoja ja muita hyotyja. TFV-teorian avulla voidaan siten suunnata uusiin tehokkaampiin menetelmiin tahtaavaa kokeilua ja kehitystyota seka rakentamisen kaytannon etta tutkimuksen piirissa.

/pdf/an-exploration-towards-a-production-theory-and-its-1y5pohraps.pdf

An exploration towards a production theory and its application to construction

Project controls have traditionally been focused on after-the-fact detection of variances. This thesis proposes a control system, the Last Planner system, that causes the realization of plans, and thus supplements project management’s concern for management of contracts with the management of production.

The Last Planner system has previously been successfully applied by firms with direct responsibility for production management; e.g., specialty contractors. This thesis extends system application to those coordinating specialists, both in design and construction, through a series of case studies, one of which also explores the limits of unilateral implementation by specialists.

In addition to the extended application, two questions drive this research. The first question is 1) What can be done by way of tools provided and improved implementation of the Last Planner system of production control to increase plan reliability above the 70% PPC level? Previous research revealed substantial improvement in productivity for those who improved plan reliability to the 70% level, consequently there is reason to hope for further improvement, possibly in all performance dimensions, especially with application across an entire project rather than limited to individual specialty firms. That question is explored in three case studies, the last of which achieved the 90% target.	

The second question is 2) How/Can Last Planner be successfully applied to increase plan reliability during design processes. That question is explored in an extensive case study, which significantly contributes to understanding the design process from the perspective of active control, but unfortunately does not fully answer the question, primarily because the project was aborted prior to start of construction. However, it is argued that Last Planner is especially appropriate for design production control because of the value-generating nature of design, which renders ineffective traditional techniques such as detailed front end planning and control through after-the-fact detection of variances.

Issues for future research are proposed, including root cause analysis of plan failures and quantification of the benefits of increased plan reliability for both design and construction processes.

/pdf/the-last-planner-system-of-production-control-3b02rm1jde.pdf

The last planner system of production control

Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) has existed as a subfield of AI for less than two decades. DAI is concerned with systems that consist of multiple independent entities that interact in a domain. Traditionally, DAI has been divided into two sub-disciplines: Distributed Problem Solving (DPS) focuses on the information management aspects of systems with several components working together towards a common goals Multiagent Systems (MAS) deals with behavior management in collections of several independent entities, or agents. This survey of MAS is intended to serve as an introduction to the field and as an organizational framework. A series of general multiagent scenarios are presented. For each scenario, the issues that arise are described along with a sampling of the techniques that exist to deal with them. The presented techniques are not exhaustive, but they highlight how multiagent systems can be and have been used to build complex systems. When options exist, the techniques presented are biased towards machine learning approaches. Additional opportunities for applying machine learning to MAS are highlighted and robotic soccer is presented as an appropriate test bed for MAS. This survey does not focus exclusively on robotic systems. However, we believe that much of the prior research in non-robotic MAS is relevant to robotic MAS, and we explicitly discuss several robotic MAS, including all of those presented in this issue.

/pdf/multiagent-systems-a-survey-from-a-machine-learning-yps633tity.pdf

Multiagent Systems: A Survey from a Machine Learning Perspective

Not well documented to date, the design and development system of Toyota Motor Corporation contributes greatly to the firm's remarkably consistent growth in market share and its enviable profit per vehicle. This article, which extends the authors' previous study of the Toyota product development system, reports on further data collection in Japan and at the Toyota Technical Center in Michigan. Findings substantiate the authors' previous claims about the product development system and lead them to conclude that Toyota is "set-based" in its approaches. 

Set-based concurrent engineering (SBCE) begins by broadly considering sets of possible solutions (in parallel and relatively independently) and gradually narrowing the set of possibilities to converge on a final solution. Gradually eliminating weaker solutions increases the likelihood of finding the best or better solutions. In this way, Toyota can move more quickly toward convergence and production than their traditional, "point-based" counterparts. 

The authors develop the SBCE idea by describing three principles that guide Toyota's decision making in design: (1) simultaneous mapping of the design space according to functional expertise, (2) "integration by intersection" of mutually acceptable functional refinements introduced by the design and manufacturing engineering groups, and (3) establishment of feasibility before commitment. The authors also present a conceptual framework tied to the Toyota development system and discuss why the SBCE principles lead to highly effective product development.

Findings suggest that a change to a distributed, concurrent engineering environment should involve a corresponding change in design method to a set-based process. Product development organizations able to master and apply SBCE principles and Toyota's principles for integrating systems and cultivating organizational knowledge may be able to radically improve their design and development processes.

Toyota's Principles of Set-Based Concurrent Engineering

The Second Toyota Paradox: How Delaying Decisions Can Make Better Cars Faster

Although on the surface, toyota's development process seems extraordinarily cumbersome, it is a model of how to make better cars more quickly and cheaply. Toyota's engineers and managers delay decisions and give suppliers partial information, while exploring numerous prototypes. The authors examine what they call "set-based concurrent engineering," a method prevalent at Toyota but not at other Japanese and U.S. automakers. Toyota designers think about sets of design alternatives, rather than pursuing one alternative iteratively. They gradually narrow the sets until they come to a final solution. Through extensive research, case studies, and interviews, the authors present their argument - that this apparently inefficient system has made Toyota the fastest and most efficient developer of autos.

Concurrent engineering (CE) involves a widely recognized revolution in the social organization of product development and a corresponding revolution in the underlying paradigm of design. We distinguish between two paradigms-point-based design and set-based design-and argue that effective, truly concurrent design requires shifting to a paradigm where design team members reason and communicate about sets of designs which we call "set-based concurrent engineering". A survey of 92 Japanese and 119 US automotive parts suppliers who design their own products sought to quantify the pervasiveness and correlates of "set-based approaches". The survey evidence indicates that set-based design communication is more prevalent among Japanese than among US parts suppliers, and is correlated with certain product development characteristics including years of experience with early involvement of suppliers in design, the degree of product-process design overlap, the degree to which subsystems are interdependent, and the use of quality function deployment (QFD).

Involving suppliers in product development in the United States and Japan: evidence for set-based concurrent engineering

This paper presents the ideas underlying a program that takes as input a schematic of a mechanical or hydraulic power transmission system, plus specifications and a utility function, and returns catalog numbers from predefined catalogs for the optimal selection of components implementing the design. It thus provides the designer with a high level ``language'''' in which to compose new designs, then performs some of the detailed design process for him. The program is based on a formalization of quantitative inferences about hierarchically organized sets of artifacts and operating conditions, which allows design compilation without the exhaustive enumeration of alternatives.

/pdf/quantitative-inference-in-a-mechanical-design-compiler-6bsvbdcwsi.pdf

Allen C. Ward

Papers

Toyota's Principles of Set-Based Concurrent Engineering

The Second Toyota Paradox: How Delaying Decisions Can Make Better Cars Faster

The Second Toyota Paradox: How Delaying Decisions Can Make Better Cars Faster

Involving suppliers in product development in the United States and Japan: evidence for set-based concurrent engineering

Quantitative Inference in a Mechanical Design Compiler