Cyber-physical attacks are the main substantial threats facing the utilization and development of the various smart grid technologies. Among these attacks, false data injection attack represents a main category with its widely varied types and impacts that have been extensively reported recently. In addressing this threat, several detection algorithms have been developed in the last few years. These were either model-based or data-driven algorithms. This paper provides an intensive summary of these algorithms by categorizing them and elaborating on the pros and cons of each category. The paper starts by introducing the various cyber-physical attacks along with the main reported incidents in history. The significance and the impacts of the false data injection attacks are then reported. The concluding remarks present the main criteria that should be considered in developing future detection algorithms for the false data injection attacks.

A Survey on the Detection Algorithms for False Data Injection Attacks in Smart Grids

Among different sources of alternate energy, wind and solar are two prominent and promising alternatives to meet the future electricity needs for mankind. Generally, these sources are integrated at the distribution utilities to supply the local distribution customers. If the power generated by these sources is bulk, then they are either integrated at the distribution/transmission level or may be operated in an island mode if feasible. The integration of these renewables in the power network will change the fault level and network topologies. These fault levels are intermittent in nature and existing protection schemes may fail to operate because of their pre-set condition. Therefore, the design and selection of a proper protection scheme is very much essential for reliable control and operation of renewable integrated power systems. Depending upon the level of infeed and location of the renewable integration, the protection requirements are different. For low renewable infeed at the distribution level, the existing relay settings are immune from any small change in the network fault current from new incoming renewables. However, bulk renewable infeed requires modification in the existing protection schemes to accommodate the fault current variation from the incoming renewables. For bulk penetration of the renewable, the requirement of modified/additional protection schemes is unavoidable. Adaptive relaying and non-adaptive relaying schemes are discussed in the literature for protection of power networks, which are experiencing dynamic fault currents and frequent changing network topologies. This article presents a detailed review of protection schemes for renewable integrated power networks which includes distribution, transmission and microgrid systems. The merits and demerits of these protection schemes are also identified in this article for the added interest of the readers. The visible scope of advance protection schemes which may be suitable for providing reliable protection for dynamic fault current networks is also explored.

Protection challenges under bulk penetration of renewable energy resources in power systems: A review

This paper proposes a nonunit protection scheme for DC microgrids (DC MGs) utilizing only local measurements. This scheme is developed based on the natural characteristics of DC current and its first and second derivatives under fault transients. Since it is based on local measurements, the problems associated with the communication delay are avoided. The selected protection scheme detects and discriminates the faults within a few microseconds of its inception. In this paper, a method to calculate the thresholds, used for the protection scheme, is also discussed. The proposed scheme is validated on a ring-type DC MG architecture under different fault scenarios and tested through MATLAB/Simulink simulations.

A Non-unit Protection Scheme for DC Microgrid Based on Local Measurements

A new differential current-based fast fault detection and location scheme for multiple Photovoltaic-based dc microgrid is proposed in this paper. A multiterminal dc (MTDC) distribution network is an effective solution for present grid scenario, where local distribution is incorporated primarily by power electronics based dc loads. PV systems with auxiliary power sources and local loads are used for MTDC connection, especially when ac utility grid is integrated with it by voltage source converters. Pole to pole and pole to ground faults are basically considered as dc distribution network hazards. As PV is connected through dc cable, high resistive dc arc fault is also studied in present literature. The proposed PV system is considered with arc-fault circuit interrupters as backup protection and is used to detect arcing series fault. Fast acting dc switching is considered for proposed differential current-based unit protection. A discrete frame differential current solution is considered to classify the fault type by modified cumulative sum average approach. By calculating unknown dc cable resistance accurately by non-iterative Moore-Penrose pseudo inverse technique, the fault distance is calculated. TMS320C6713 DSP based test-bench is used for verification of the scheme.

Fault Detection and Location of Photovoltaic Based DC Microgrid Using Differential Protection Strategy

DC microgrids have attracted significant attention over the last decade in both academia and industry. DC microgrids have demonstrated superiority over AC microgrids with respect to reliability, efficiency, control simplicity, integration of renewable energy sources, and connection of dc loads. Despite these numerous advantages, designing and implementing an appropriate protection system for dc microgrids remains a significant challenge. The challenge stems from the rapid rise of dc fault current which must be extinguished in the absence of naturally occurring zero crossings, potentially leading to sustained arcs. In this paper, the challenges of DC microgrid protection are investigated from various aspects including, dc fault current characteristics, ground systems, fault detection methods, protective devices, and fault location methods. In each part, a comprehensive review has been carried out. Finally, future trends in the protection of DC microgrids are briefly discussed.

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DC Microgrid Protection: A Comprehensive Review

Protection scheme for AC transmission systems are well understood and matured On the other hand, DC system is still facing a challenge in developing proper protection scheme because of its natural characteristics A protection scheme, which utilizes some of the developed techniques for AC system, and modified to suit the DC system characteristics, is proposed in this paper The scheme is based on the concept of DC current profile under transients, which depends on the fault location This property is combined with the directional feature to achieve the protection of a DC microgrid The proposed scheme is demonstrated on the ring type DC microgrid system, which is able to detect the fault in the DC system, and also ensure its backup protection The proposed concept is verified and tested through MATLAB/Simulink simulations

A new protection scheme for DC microgrid using line current derivative

The presence of phasor measurements in ac systems provides a range of protection techniques based on sequence components and phase comparison to discriminate the fault. However, the absence of phasor measurements in dc system reduces the available alternatives for fault detection. In addition, the presence of low fault tolerant converters, large range of fault impedance and varying grid conditions demands sensitive and selective protection schemes. In this regard, several recent works have suggested a communication-based primary protection due to its high sensitivity to faults. However, with a failure in the communication network, the primary protection will also fail to detect a fault. This paper proposes a backup scheme to isolate the faulty section, even in the case of a communication failure. In the literature, overcurrent- and undervoltage-based backup protection schemes are suggested along with unit primary protection. In the presence of low fault tolerant converters and variable fault resistances, the traditional backup schemes may not work well. This paper proposes a new fault detection method for backup schemes, which utilizes only the locally measured current signal, and uses both derivative and integral characteristics of current to ascertain the occurrence of a fault. The proposed method is capable of detecting the fault accurately and within the required time. The performance of the proposed scheme has been assessed on a $\pm$ 600 V TN-S grounded dc microgrid under various conditions using hardware-in-loop simulations on real-time digital simulator.

Local Measurements-Based Backup Protection for DC Microgrids Using Sequential Analyzing Technique

Protection schemes for AC transmission systems are well understood and matured. On the other hand, developing proper protection scheme for DC system is still a research challenge. A distributed fault detection and localization scheme, based on local measurements, is proposed in this paper. It is based on the fact that a fault generally leads to a significant drop in the voltage along with its high rate of change. The voltage at the fault point is predicted using a quadratic time varying function. In case of fault, the difference in the predicted and the true values exceeds certain threshold. A systematic procedure for setting the necessary threshold value is also suggested. The protection system has been modelled and tested for different fault types, their locations. and with the noisy measurement. The proposed scheme is validated on a ring type DC microgrid system using Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS).

A fast scheme for fault detection in DC microgrid based on voltage prediction

Quick fault detection and isolation of faulty section are desired in DC microgrid due to the presence of power electronic converters and low cable impedances. Owing to need of fast disconnection, limited time and data are available for online fault distance estimation. Some of the existing techniques consider source capacitors connected at only one end of the cable; therefore, assume that the fault current is contributed by only one end of the cable. This may not be true in the case of multi-source DC microgrids, where fault current would be supplied from both the ends. Further, existing communication-based techniques require either data synchronisation or fast communication network. To address these issues, this study proposes an online fault location method for multi-source DC microgrid without using communication. The mathematical model of faulted cable section connected to sources at both the ends is derived. This model is used along with the measurements to determine the fault distance. The model consistency with the measurements is quantified using the confidence level based on the residual analysis. A ring-type multi-source DC microgrid system is considered and simulated on real-time digital simulator to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Anju Meghwani

Papers

A Non-unit Protection Scheme for DC Microgrid Based on Local Measurements

A new protection scheme for DC microgrid using line current derivative

Local Measurements-Based Backup Protection for DC Microgrids Using Sequential Analyzing Technique

A fast scheme for fault detection in DC microgrid based on voltage prediction

Local measurement-based technique for estimating fault location in multi-source DC microgrids